Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) is commonly applied to enhance the white colour and brightness of food products. TiO 2 is also used as white pigment in other products such as toothpaste. A small fraction of the pigment is known to be present as nanoparticles (NPs). Recent studies with TiO 2 NPs indicate that these particles can have toxic effects. In this paper, we aimed to estimate the oral intake of TiO 2 and its NPs from food, food supplements and toothpaste in the Dutch population aged 2 to over 70 years by combining data on food consumption and supplement intake with concentrations of Ti and TiO 2 NPs in food products and supplements. For children aged 2-6 years, additional intake via ingestion of toothpaste was estimated. The mean longterm intake to TiO 2 ranges from 0.06 mg/kg bw/day in elderly (70+), 0.17 mg/kg bw/day for 7-69-year-old people, to 0.67 mg/kg bw/day in children (2-6 year old). The estimated mean intake of TiO 2 NPs ranges from 0.19 mg/kg bw/day in elderly, 0.55 mg/kg bw/day for 7-69-yearold people, to 2.16 mg/kg bw/day in young children. Ninety-fifth percentile (P95) values are 0.74, 1.61 and 4.16 mg/kg bw/day, respectively. The products contributing most to the TiO 2 intake are toothpaste (in young children only), candy, coffee creamer, fine bakery wares and sauces. In a separate publication, the results are used to evaluate whether the presence of TiO 2 NPs in these products can pose a human health risk.

The current study aims at estimating the dietary intake of PBDEs in the Netherlands and evaluating the resultant risk. Dietary intake was estimated using results of PBDE analyses in Dutch food products from 2003/2004 and consumption data of the third Dutch National Food Consumption Survey (1997/1998). Assuming that non-detects represent levels of half the detection limit, the median long-term intake of the Dutch population of the sum of five major PBDEs (namely PBDEs 47, 99, 100, 153+154) is 0.79 ng/kg body weight bw/day (P97.5: 1.62 ng/kg bw/day). When non-detects are considered as zeros the values are 0.53 (median) and 1.34 (P97.5) ng/kg bw/day. Environmental concentrations of PBDEs in Europe are expected to decline in the near future because of the ban on penta- and octaBDE technical products. However, it will take at least a decade before this will result in lower PBDE concentrations in food products. Hence, a regular monitoring program for PBDEs is recommended. A risk evaluation at the most sensitive endpoints of BDE 99 carried out in this paper indicates that, although the long-term exposure to BDE 99 is well below the human exposure threshold level for neurodevelopmental toxicity, it may be close to that for reproductive toxicity.

Objective: Reduction in the current high levels of meat and dairy consumption may contribute to environmental as well as human health. Since meat is a major source of Fe, effects on Fe intake need to be evaluated, especially in groups vulnerable to negative Fe status. In the present study we evaluated the effects of replacing meat and dairy foods with plant-based products on environmental sustainability (land requirement) and health (SFA and Fe intakes) in women. Design: Data on land requirements were derived from existing calculation methods. Food composition data were derived from the Dutch Food Composition Table 2006. Data were linked to the food consumption of young Dutch women. Land requirements and nutrient intakes were evaluated at baseline and in two scenarios in which 30 % (Scenario_30 %) or 100 % (Scenario_100 %) of the dairy and meat consumption was randomly replaced by the same amount of plant-based dairy-and meat-replacing foods. Setting: The Netherlands. Subjects: Three hundred and ninety-eight young Dutch females. Results: Replacement of meat and dairy by plant-based foods benefited the environment by decreasing land use. The intake of SFA decreased considerably compared with the baseline situation. On average, total Fe intake increased by 2?5 mg/d, although most of the Fe intake was from a less bioavailable source. Conclusions: Replacement of meat and dairy foods by plant-based foods reduced land use for consumption and SFA intake of young Dutch females and did not compromise total Fe intake.

EFSA is conducting pan‐European dietary exposure and risk assessments related to actual levels of pesticide residues in food commodities. These assessments use the pesticide occurrence data generated under the official monitoring programs of Member States, the consumption data from EFSA's comprehensive food consumption database and pesticide‐specific information such as processing factors. Currently no harmonised list of processing factors is available within Europe and worldwide. The overall objective of this project is to develop a database of validated processing factors, which is compatible with the EFSA food classification and description system FoodEx 2. In the first part of the project, a compendium of representative processing techniques was elaborated which serves as a standard description of all relevant processes and as a basis for validation of processing studies. In the second part of the project all relevant processes and raw and processed commodities were coded according to FoodEx2. In the third and last part of the project all processing studies used by EFSA in their Conclusions and Reasoned Opinions issued until 30/06/2016 were re‐evaluated according to uniform quality criteria and reported in a database. The database is provided as a flat Excel spreadsheet. Information on processing conditions, on analytical methods, storage stability and GLP was collected from the studies and was used to judge the acceptability of each processing study. The representativeness of the processing conditions applied in the studies was judged by comparing them to the compendium of representative processing techniques. Processing factors (PF) were derived from the studies according to comprehensible calculation rules and based on the residue definitions for monitoring. The individual PF were judged for their acceptability. For each commodity/process/active substance combination a median PF was calculated from the individual ones, based on the trials from one or more studies. The database is a ready‐to‐use inventory of PF for pesticides in a variety of processed food items. In a pilot project a second database was set up with processing factors based on the residue definition for dietary risk assessment. Extension of this database is recommended.

In the context of the second framework partnership agreement between the National Institute for Public Health and the Environment of the Netherlands (RIVM) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) acute cumulative dietary exposure assessments were performed for two cumulative assessment groups (CAGs) of pesticides that affect the nervous system: pesticides associated with brain and/or erythrocyte AChE inhibition (CAG-NAN, 47 pesticides) and pesticides associated with functional alterations of the motor division (CAG-NAM, 100 pesticides). The exposure assessments used pesticide monitoring data collected by Member States under their official monitoring programmes in 2014, 2015 and 2016 and individual food consumption data from ten populations of consumers from different countries and from different age groups. Exposure estimates were obtained for each group of pesticides by means of a 2-dimensional Monte Carlo simulation, which was implemented in the Monte Carlo Risk Assessment (MCRA) software. The scope of the assessment and the parameters to be used for cumulative exposure assessment were discussed and agreed by the Standing Committee on Plants, Animals, Food and Feed (SC PAFF). Based on those discussions, a very conservative tier I modelling approach and a refined, but still conservative tier II modelling approach were used. In these assessments, common risk assessment practice was followed and the cumulative exposure was calculated as total margin of exposure (MOET) at the 50 th , 90 th , 95 th , 99 th and 99.9 th percentiles of the exposure distribution. Five sensitivity analyses aiming to address major uncertainties were performed. The exposure estimates obtained in this report are used in EFSA's scientific report on the cumulative dietary risk characterisation of pesticides that have acute effects on the nervous system.

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In the context of the second framework partnership agreement between the National Institute for Public Health and the Environment of the Netherlands (RIVM) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) chronic cumulative exposure assessments were performed for two cumulative assessment groups (CAGs) of pesticides that affect the thyroid: pesticides associated with hypertrophy, hyperplasia and neoplasia of C-cells (TCP, 18 active substances) and pesticide associated with hypothyroidism (TCF, 124 active substances). The exposure assessments used monitoring data collected by Member States under their official pesticide monitoring programmes in 2014, 2015 and 2016 and individual food consumption data from ten populations of consumers from different countries and from different age groups. Exposure estimates were obtained for each group of pesticides by means of a 2-dimensional Monte Carlo simulation, which was implemented in the Monte Carlo Risk Assessment (MCRA) software. The scope of the assessment and the parameters to be used for cumulative exposure assessment were discussed and agreed by the Standing Committee on Plants, Animals, Food and Feed (SC PAFF). Based on those discussions, a very conservative tier I modelling approach and a refined, but still conservative tier II modelling approach were used. In these assessments, common risk assessment practice was followed and the cumulative exposure was calculated as the total margin of exposure (MOET) at the 50 th , 90 th , 95 th , 99 th and 99.9 th percentiles of the exposure distribution. Four sensitivity analyses were performed to better understand the uncertainties such as the replacements of non-detects in the monitoring data and the availability of processing factors. The exposure estimates obtained in this report are used in EFSA's scientific report on the cumulative dietary risk characterisation of pesticides that have chronic effects on the thyroid.

Dietary exposure to nitrate and nitrite occurs via three main sources; occurrence in (vegetable) foods, food additives in certain processed foods and contaminants in drinking water. While nitrate can be converted to nitrite in the human body, their risk assessment is usually based on single substance exposure in different regulatory frameworks. Here, we assessed the longterm combined exposure to nitrate and nitrite from food and drinking water. Dutch monitoring data (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018) and EFSA data from 2017 were used for concentration data. These were combined with data from the Dutch food consumption survey (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016) to assess exposure. A conversion factor (median 0.023; range 0.008-0.07) was used to express the nitrate exposure in nitrite equivalents which was added to the nitrite exposure. The uncertainty around the conversion factor was taken into account by using conversion factors randomly sampled from the abovementioned range. The combined dietary exposure was calculated for the Dutch population (1-79 years) with different exposure scenarios to address regional differences in nitrate and nitrite concentrations in drinking water. All scenarios resulted in a combined exposure above the acceptable daily intake for nitrite ion (70 µg/kg bw), with the mean exposure varying between 95-114 µg nitrite/kg bw/day in the different scenarios. Of all ages, the combined exposure was highest in children aged 1 year with an average of 250 µg nitrite/kg bw/day. Vegetables contributed most to the combined exposure in food in all scenarios, varying from 34%-41%. Food additive use contributed 8%-9% to the exposure and drinking water contributed 3%-19%.Our study is the first to perform a combined dietary exposure assessment of nitrate and nitrite while accounting for the uncertain conversion factor. Such a combined exposure assessment overarching different regulatory frameworks and using different scenarios for drinking water is a better instrument for protecting human health than single substance exposure.