This paper explores the phenomenon of plural forms (i.e., the simultaneous coexistence of franchised and company-owned outlets, operationally, the proportion of company-owned units in franchise systems based on literature, in franchising across three countries from three continents, namely the United States, France, and Brazil in what is ostensibly the first cross-cultural comparison of its kind. Based on 2003 secondary data, we carry out a series of inferentially grounded analyses involving the plural forms phenomenon from an exploratory perspective. Though subsequently, comparative regression models are also evaluated using eight purported determinants of the use of the plural forms, the essential character of the paper remains essentially exploratory. The results show that the proportion of company-owned outlets is almost three times greater in France and Brazil as compared to the United States. We also found that in the U.S. sample, three of the eight predictors significantly predict the occurrence of plural forms (namely, average total required investment and cash liquidity requirement have a negative impact, and company age has a positive impact); the French model was not statistically significant, whereas in the Brazilian

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Purpose -This paper aims to investigate how consumer and image factors as well as store familiarity influence store brand (SB) purchase behaviour. SBs are now widely offered by European mass retailers. However, consumer behaviour toward SBs is not yet clearly understood in all European markets. Design/methodology/approach -The authors analysed data collected from 266 respondents and used structural equation modelling to test the main hypotheses. They then carried out ANOVA and MANOVA analyses to test the effect of store familiarity on SB purchase behaviour. Findings -Results indicate that store image perceptions, SB price-image, value consciousness, and SB attitude have significant and positive influence on SB purchase behaviour. Store familiarity positively influences SB choice, but not SB purchase intention. None of the socio-demographic variables (age, gender, household income, and family size) included as control variables have an effect on SB choice.Research limitations/implications -The study is limited because it did not account for the effect of product categories on SB purchase behaviour. Consequently, results cannot be determined for different product categories. It would also be appropriate to measure SB choice in a more concrete way, such as using scanner data. Practical implications -Findings highlight the importance of value consciousness, store image perceptions, and SB price-image on SB purchase behaviour. They also show greater popularity of SB products among consumers, including those with high household income. Originality/value -There is increased value to retailers in studying how consumer and image factors jointly influence SB purchase behaviour, whilst also accounting for store familiarity instead of brand familiarity.

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