In this study, we compared dietary habits of residents in East (N = 76) and West Germany (N = 266) using results obtained in 1992-1993 from a retrospective semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire referring to 1991-1992. Nutrient intakes were calculated based on the German Federal Food Code. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was used to determine whether dietary intakes varied according to residence in East and West Germany. At the food level, East German subjects reported a higher consumption of bread, spreadable fat, and sausage, whereas West German participants reported a higher intake of fruit, vegetables, and pasta and rice. At the macronutrient level, energy intake did not differ significantly between groups, nor did the percent contribution of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and alcohol to total energy intake. East German participants had a lower total water and fibre intake, the latter significant only after adjustment for confounders. At the micro-nutrient level, East German participants had a higher intake of cobalamin, retinol and retinol-equivalents (but not of beta-carotene). There were no differences in the intake of vitamins C, D, and E between groups. Less salt and more potassium, calcium, magnesium and zinc were consumed by West than by East German subjects. Overall, both groups showed disadvantageous dietary patterns. The results are discussed in the context of an overview of other dietary surveys performed in the two parts of Germany before and after reunification. In general our results are consistent with other observations showing that dietary habits in East Germany rapidly approached those in West Germany after reunification, although some residual differences seemed to persist.
Maintaining a diverse urban forest that provides ecosystem services can promote urban sustainability and resilience to environmental change. Around the world, cities have taken to inventorying their urban trees and quantifying their ecosystem services but more so in industrialized counties than in Latin America. Here we describe the results of an i-Tree inventory that established 206 survey plots in the National Municipal District of Santo Domingo (NMDSD). We used social-ecological theory to evaluate potential factors that may influence urban forest structure, composition, and ecosystem services diversity across three wards with distinct social and urban characteristics. Rarefaction curves showed a diverse urban forest dominated by non-native trees that have ornamental and medicinal uses. Wards differed in species composition with palms being particularly dominant in Wards 1 and 2 where the proportion of low-income houses is smaller. Ward 1 supports high-income residential areas and Ward 3 is the area with higher population and housing densities and lower income residents. On average, we found no significant differences among wards in tree species richness, average dbh, leaf area, and percent tree cover per plot. Trees in Ward 2 were taller, on average, than those in Ward 1 but were comparable to those in Ward 3. Likewise, tree density per plot was highest in Ward 2, followed by Ward 1 and Ward 3. Despite these significant differences in stem densities, average values in four ecosystem services involving measures of carbon, rainfall, and contaminants (C-sequestration, C-storage, avoided runoff, and removal of air pollutants) were non-significant across wards. We found disproportionately more street trees in Ward 1 relative to Wards 2 and 3 and more trees in public spaces in Wards 1 and 2 relative to Ward 3. Evidence for the luxury effect on tree distribution in the NMDSD was subtle and manifested mostly through differences in species composition and tree distribution across public and private domains as well as the amount of planting space. Overall results point to inequalities in the potential of reforestation among NMDS wards and an overabundance of non-native species, which should guide urban forest management with ecosystem services and conservation goals.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.