Recent epidemiologic studies indicate that leishmaniasis in the Americas is far more abundant and of greater public health importance than was previously recognized. The disease in the New World is caused by a number of different parasite species that are capable of producing a wide variety of clinical manifestations. The outcome of leishmanial infection in humans is largely dependent on the immune responsiveness of the host and the virulence of the infecting parasite strain. This article reviews current concepts of the clinical forms, immunology, pathology, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment of the disease as well as aspects of its epidemiology and control. Recommendations for future research on the disease and its control are made.

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Numerical zymotaxonomy and variability of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) between the small and large subunits of the rRNA genes were used to examine strain variation and relationships in natural populations of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. A total of 101 strains from distinct hosts and Brazilian geographic regions were assigned to 15 zymodemes clustered in two major genetic groups. The great number of isolates (48.5%) placed in zymodeme IOC/Z-27 were collected on the Atlantic coast. The high molecular diversity found in populations in the Amazon Basin was related to the great number of sandfly vector(s) in that region. The results of the restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the ITS depicted considerable intraspecific variation. Genotypic groups A, B, and C contained 39, 40, and 22 isolates, which were divided into 16, 10, and 15 genotypes, respectively. The genetic polymorphism observed demonstrates the degree of diversity of L. Infections with the parasitic protozoan Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis Vianna 1911 (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) or strain variants are recognized as causing human illness in many areas of (sub)tropical America (at least 15 countries), where it constitutes a significant public health problem. Many of these parasites seem to have a unique life cycle, with different phlebotomine sandfly (Diptera: Psychodidae) vectors and/or animal reservoirs and a different geographic distribution (13). This pathogen is capable of producing a variety of clinical manifestations, such as (i) cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), which may heal spontaneously; (ii) mucosal leishmaniasis (ML), a hyperergic invasive ulcerative form that progresses in the absence of any apparent cellular defect (15); and (iii) disseminated CL (4).Most of the environmental factors affecting the epidemiology of the various leishmaniases are still poorly understood. Wild mammals serve as reservoirs for most of the New World Leishmania spp. (21), but there is increasing evidence that some of the human pathogenic Leishmania strains can be maintained in both sylvan and urban cycles. In the case of L. (V.) braziliensis, the principal vertebrate hosts in the sylvan cycle have not been identified, but there is evidence that dogs, horses, and donkeys may serve as reservoir hosts of this parasite (15). The existence of an urban cycle involving peridomestic sandfly species for L. (V.) braziliensis reflects the ability of these parasites and their vectors to adapt to changes in their original forested habitats with important public health implications. Studies using molecular techniques to characterize L. (V.) braziliensis populations from different regions have shown a relationship between level of similarity among the parasite populations (12, 24) and their geographic range, but recent data have also indicated that the considerable variability detected among these parasites is more probably related to the sandfly vector(s) and/or animal reservoir(s) involved in the transmission cycles (18).Pathogens that produce...

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Canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) is the major source of human visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and is transmitted from dogs to sand flies to humans. To control the spread of this disease, early and accurate detection of infected dogs is critical but challenging. Here we demonstrate the potential of the Dual-Path Platform (DPP(®)) CVL rapid test for detecting K26/K39-reactive antibodies in sera from clinically symptomatic (n=60) and asymptomatic (n=60) Leishmania infantum-infected dogs. For the specificity evaluation, assays were performed using known negative diagnostic serum samples (n=59) and cross-reaction control sera (n=11) from animals born in a VL-free area of Brazil. The diagnostic kit displayed high specificity (96%) but low sensitivity (47%) in identifying parasite-positive dogs without signs of CVL. However, the test sensitivity was significantly higher (98%) in diseased cases, indicating that this convenient test may be useful to identify the most infectious dogs. Efforts should be pursued to obtain a more sensitive DPP-multiplexed test parameter (i.e. based on simultaneous yet separate antibody detection of carefully selected multiple antigens of diagnostic utility) for effective serodiagnosis of early-infected dogs, as this will likely allow more efficient canine removal regimens than those used in practice by public health services.

The diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis remains difficult in rural areas where the disease is endemic, and serologic methods still need assessment, as they are not very sensitive for the detection of asymptomatic infectious dogs. Here we present data on the development of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based methods for the detection of antibodies against recombinant leishmanial antigens (namely, the recombinant K26 [rK26] and rK39 antigens from Leishmania infantum and the rA2 protein from Leishmania donovani) in comparison to ELISAs employing crude soluble antigen (CSA). The assays utilized sera from known negative controls (n ‫؍‬ 25) and clinically asymptomatic (n ‫؍‬ 50) and symptomatic (n ‫؍‬ 50) dogs with confirmed L. infantum infections. Additional studies were also done using sera from animals harboring other infections (n ‫؍‬ 14) for the evaluation of cross-reactivity. Our study indicated that rK26 and rK39 used in ELISAs provided very high sensitivities for the detection of symptomatic dogs (94% and 100%, respectively), followed by CSA (88%) and rA2 (70%). Conversely, rA2 was more sensitive for asymptomatic dogs (88%) than rK39 and rK26 (both 66%) and CSA (30%). Some cross-reactivity in sera from dogs with other infections (Leishmania braziliensis and Leptospira interrogans) was identified, but the rA2 protein provided the greatest specificity (98%). Data further indicate that all three recombinant proteins must be used in parallel to detect essentially all infected dogs. Efforts should be made to develop a cheap and reliable serologic test based on epitope selection from these diagnostic markers for the sensitive detection of L. infantum-infected dogs.

Five hundred thirty stocks of Leishmania isolated from human and domestic and wild reservoir hosts, representing a wide geographic distribution of endemic foci of American cutaneous (ACL) and visceral leishmaniases (AVL) were characterized and identified at species and/or subspecies levels based on their reactivity to a cross-panel of specific monoclonal antibodies using a radioimmune binding assay. This study confirms and extends our preliminary results on the high specificity of some of these monoclonals for the L. braziliensis, L. mexicana, and L. donovani complexes. This study also demonstrates the relative stability of these molecular markers and the general usefulness of the method for parasite identification. Two hundred ninety-two of 420 isolates of ACL were classified as members of the L. braziliensis complex. Two hundred twenty-seven were L. b. braziliensis; these showed the widest geographical distribution (Brazil: Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Espirito Santo, Goias, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo; Honduras: Santa Barbara and Yoko; Peru: Ancash, Piura, and Ucayali; and Venezuela: Cojedes, Distrito Federal, Lara, Portuguesa, Vale Hondo, Yaracuy, and Zulia). Forty-one stocks were identified as L. b. guyanensis (from North Brazil: Amazonas, Amapa, Para, and Rondonia). Twenty-one stocks were identified as L. b. panamensis (from Costa Rica: Alajuela, Guanacasten, Limon, Puntarenas, and San Jose; and Honduras: El Paraiso, and Olancho). Out of 128 isolates classified as members of the L. mexicana complex, 74 were differentiated as L. m. amazonensis (from Bolivia; Brazil: Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso do Norte, and Para; Peru: Pasco Forest and Van Humboldt; and Venezuela: Carabobo, Guarico, and Merida). Forty-four stocks were identified as L. m. venezuelensis (from Venezuela: Lara). Six stocks were L. m. mexicana (from Belize; and Mexico: Campeche [corrected] and Quintana Roo, Yucatan). One hundred ten isolates from AVL were identified as L. donovani chagasi (from Brazil: Bahia, Ceara, Maranhao, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso do Sul, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, and Sergipe; and Honduras: Valle). The implications of these results with respect to both the clinical and epidemiological data (including the detection of seven unusual characterized stocks) are discussed.

Leishmaniasis affects approximately 2 million people each year throughout the world. This high incidence is due in part to the lack of an efficacious vaccine. We present evidence that the recombinant leishmanial antigens LmSTI1 and TSA, which we identified and characterized previously, induce excellent protection in both murine and nonhuman primate (rhesus monkey) models of human cutaneous leishmaniasis. The remarkable protection induced by LmSTI1 and TSA in an animal model that is evolutionarily close to humans qualifies this antigen combination as a promising candidate subunit vaccine against human leishmaniasis.