Abstract-An accurate small signal model of three phase photovoltaic inverters with a high order grid filter is derived in this paper. The proposed model takes into account the influence of both the inverter operating point and the PV panels characteristics on the inverter dynamic response. A sensitivity study of the control loops to variations of the dc voltage, the PV panels transconductance, the supplied power, and the grid inductance is performed using the proposed small-signal model. Analytical and experimental results carried out on a 100 kW photovoltaic inverter are presented.Index Terms-Renewable energies, modeling and control of power inverters, distributed generation I. INTRODUCTION HOTOVOLTAIC (PV) power generation is a concept of increasing interest. In the last years, a high number of photovoltaic farms with a power capacity up to some MW have appeared in the distributed power generation scenario. In order to disturb the distribution grid as little as possible, the switching harmonics generated by the power inverters must be properly filtered out, reaching a compromise between the cost and the weight of the filter, and fulfillment of international standards regarding the grid connection of power converters, like IEC/EN 61000-3-4 [1] and IEEE 15471 [2]. Such a compromise often requires the use of high order grid filters, typically in LCL configuration. However, the stability of the system may be compromised by the resonances of the LCL filter, so that a careful design of both the filter and the control strategy is mandatory. [15]- [18], showing that Phase Locked Loops (PLL) based on the transformation of the grid voltages to a synchronous reference frame are currently a very interesting alternative to achieve that objective. The power production capability of the generation system is another issue that merits special attention, because the exploitation benefits of a photovoltaic farm intimately depend on the capability of the inverter to extract the maximum available power that can be instantaneously extracted from the panels. To achieve this relevant objective, a high number of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) techniques have been proposed in the past. Some of the most recent ones may be found in [19]-[23], [29]-[32]. A preliminary version of this paper [24] presents a study of the dynamic response of a 100 kW PV inverter with an LCL grid filter. With regard to that preliminary version, the following novelties have been added in this paper: 1) a detailed derivation of the proposed small-signal model, which includes the dynamics of the PV panels around a maximum power point of their I-V characteristics; 2) a sensitivity study of the control loops to variations of the dc voltage, the generated power, the grid inductance and the PV panels transconductance; and 3) new experimental results focused on the validation of the proposed small-signal model. Fig. 1 shows the scheme of a three-phase Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) connected to the grid through an LCL filter. The series resistances of the inductor...

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The concept of microgrid has emerged as a feasible answer to cope with the increasing number of distributed renewable energy sources which are being introduced into the electrical grid. The microgrid communication network should guarantee a complete and bidirectional connectivity among the microgrid resources, a high reliability and a feasible interoperability. This is in a contrast to the current electrical grid structure which is characterized by the lack of connectivity, being a centralized-unidirectional system. In this paper a review of the microgrids information and communication technologies (ICT) is shown. In addition, a guideline for the transition from the current communication systems to the future generation of microgrid communications is provided. This paper contains a systematic review of the most suitable communication network topologies, technologies and protocols for smart microgrids. It is concluded that a new generation of peer-to-peer communication systems is required towards a dynamic smart microgrid. Potential future research about communications of the next microgrid generation is also identified.

In photovoltaic (PV) double-stage grid-connected inverters a high frequency DC-DC isolation and voltage step-up stage is commonly used between the panel and the grid-connected inverter. This paper is focused on the modeling and control design of DC-DC converters with Peak Current mode Control (PCC) and an external control loop of the PV panel voltage, which works following a voltage reference provided by a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm. In the proposed overall control structure the output voltage of the DC-DC converter is regulated by the grid-connected inverter. Therefore, the inverter may be considered as a constant voltage load for the development of the small-signal model of the DC-DC converter, whereas the PV panel is considered as a negative resistance. The sensitivity of the control loops to variations of the power extracted from the PV panel and of its voltage is studied.The theoretical analysis is corroborated by frequency response measurements on a 230W experimental inverter working from a single PV panel. The inverter is based on a Flyback DC-DC converter operating in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) followed by a PWM full-bridge single-phase inverter. The time response of the whole system (DC-DC + inverter) is also shown to validate the concept.

In order to improve the efficiency of a photovoltaic system, it is possible to use a transformerless photovoltaic inverter. However, this topology needs to be studied in detail, as it presents some problems related to the galvanic connection between the grid and the photovoltaic generator (e.g. efficiency degradation and safety problems).In this paper, a review of grid-connected single-phase photovoltaic inverters based on transformerless topologies has been carried out. On the one hand, some alternatives based on classical topologies have been presented. On the other hand, alternatives based on multi-level inverter topologies have been studied, showing up that no leakage current is generated in comparison to classical topologies.

Index Terms-Digital control, linear feedback control systems, power system harmonics, power quality, three-phase electric power, adaptive signal processing, adaptive filters, lattice filters.