The extended producer responsibility (EPR) has been adopted in many countries throughout the world to give producers responsibility to manage their products until the post-consumer stage. On many occasions in developing countries, the system is mostly implemented for electronic waste. However, with the rising concern on the marine plastic issue, developing countries, including those in Asia, have started to apply EPR for package and container waste. In practice, developing countries show significant differences in their EPR implementation compared with developed ones due to contrasting conditions of several factors, including social, economic and technology. This article aims to explore the challenges of developing countries to apply EPR as well as determine possible measures to overcome the challenges. Results show that applying EPR system for plastic waste in developing countries faces many challenges, such as the existence of a market-based collection system of recyclables, high transportation cost, lack of waste collection services in rural areas, a limited number of facilities to manage certain types of plastic waste, insufficient pollution control and free riding and orphan products. The challenges, furthermore, can be minimised by differentiating the responsibility of producers, focusing on rural and remote areas, involving informal sectors, creating joint facilities in recycling parks, expanding waste management collection services, increasing the use of EPR and minimising free riding.
In the original article, there was an error in affiliation 1. The correct affiliation appears above. Additionally, references [15] and [52] contained formatting errors. The correct versions are as follows: 15. Ikeda Y, Iyetomi H, Mizuno T. Big data analysis on global community formation and isolation. Springer (2021). 52. ASEAN. Declaration of ASEAN Concord II (Bali Concord II) (2003). Available from:https://asean.org/speechandstatement/declaration-of-asean-concord-ii-baliconcord-ii/ (Accessed 12, September 2022).The authors apologize for these errors and state that this does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated.
Economic integration is underway in East Asia and the Asia-Pacific region, including the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) community-building process, with the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) coming into effect in 2018 and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) in 2022. While these Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) have deepened multilateral relations, there is an insufficient mechanism to quantify multilateral diplomacy within the region. Therefore, this study analyzed the region from three perspectives: countries that have contributed to diplomacy for intra-regional cooperation (diplomatic ranking), the cohesiveness of countries in diplomatic stances (diplomatic clusters), and the synchronization period of cooperative events (diplomatic synchronization); and we quantified them by the ranking of diplomatic centrality, blockmodeling of the signed network, and analytic signal, respectively. For analysis, we used bilateral event data to create a political distance network consisting of the original East Asia Summit (EAS) member countries (ASEAN+6) and the United States for the period 1985–2020 and to define diplomatic centrality. Diplomatic ranking indicated three major trends: 1985–1992, 1993–2011, and 2012–2020. Until 1992, Japan, the ASEAN member states (AMS), and Australia ranked at the top, and from 1993 to 2011, Japan and China almost dominated the top. Since 2012, AMS have joined Japan and China in the top ranks. Diplomatic clusters showed the stances of Australia and New Zealand were closest. Throughout the 36 years, the stances of Japan and Republic of Korea were also closer, followed by China, AMS, and the United States. Diplomatic synchronization quantified the progress of regionalism in East Asia. Furthermore, diplomatic rankings in synchronous periods revealed the difference between the diplomatic positions of Japan and China in East Asia and illustrated that AMS were at the center of multilateral diplomacy in the region in 2018–2019.
This study examined whether nighttime light can be a proxy for building height. It is important for estimating an urban environment and urban design and understanding industrial clusters. However, it is necessary to purchase height data for a wide range of buildings, and it is difficult to obtain data in a time series. In this study, we examined whether it is possible to estimate the height of buildings using nighttime light data. This research focuses on the fact that as the number of windows increases, the amount of light leaking from the windows during the night increases for the entire building. This increases the amount of light emitted by the building. We conducted the first Japanese correlation analysis using a three-dimensional dataset with a resolution of 1 meter that was released by Hyogo Prefecture on 10 January 2020. We also used nighttime light data from the Suomi NPP satellite, which has been in operation since 2011 and is jointly managed by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and NASA. The percentage of land occupied by buildings within a 450-meter square of a nighttime light resolution was varied to obtain a higher correlation between buildings and nighttime light. The correlation between the average height of buildings and the luminous intensity of nighttime light within that pixel was calculated. The coefficient of determination was 0.425, which was the best value when the percentage of land occupied by buildings in a pixel was between 70 and 80%. This study found a high correlation between night light and building height. We believe that if a building has a certain size, the night light can be used as a proxy. The results of our research will contribute to understanding the changes and characteristics of urban development and population distribution as urbanization progresses in various regions. Rapid public transportation services, education, and environmental improvement will contribute to urban development and changes in population distribution, which will greatly relieve urban poverty and improve urban security and the environment.
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