BackgroundQuinones are compounds extensively used in studies of oxidative stress due to their role in plants as chemicals for defense. These compounds are of great interest for pharmacologists and scientists, in general, because several cancer chemotherapeutic agents contain the quinone nucleus. However, due to differences in structures and diverse pharmacological effects, the exact toxicity mechanisms exerted by quinones are far from elucidatation.Methodology/Principal FindingsUsing Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we evaluated the main mechanisms of toxicity of two naphthoquinones, menadione and plumbagin, by determining tolerance and oxidative stress biomarkers such as GSH and GSSG, lipid peroxidation levels, as well as aconitase activity. The importance of glutathione transferases (GST) in quinone detoxification was also addressed. The GSSG/GSH ratio showed that menadione seemed to exert its toxicity mainly through the generation of ROS while plumbagin acted as an electrophile reacting with GSH. However, the results showed that, even by different pathways, both drugs were capable of generating oxidative stress through their toxic effects. Our results showed that the control strain, BY4741, and the glutathione transferase deficient strains (gtt1Δ and gtt2Δ) were sensitive to both compounds. With respect to the role of GST isoforms in cellular protection against quinone toxicity, we observed that the Gtt2 deficient strain was unable to overcome lipid peroxidation, even after a plumbagin pre-treatment, indicating that this treatment did not improve tolerance when compared with the wild type strain. Cross-tolerance experiments confirmed distinct cytotoxicity mechanisms for these naphthoquinones since only a pre-treatment with menadione was able to induce acquisition of tolerance against stress with plumbagin.Conclusions/SignificanceThese results suggest different responses to menadione and plumbagin which could be due to the fact that these compounds use different mechanisms to exert their toxicity. In addition, the Gtt2 isoform seemed to act as a general protective factor involved in quinone detoxification.

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Dimerization of lawsone occurs upon reaction with Co(BF(4))(2)·6H(2)O and N,N'-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)ethylenediamine (py(2)en) to produce the mononuclear complex [Co(III)(bhnq)(py(2)en)]BF(4)·H(2)O (1). This complex has been investigated as a prototype of a bioreductive prodrug, where the bhnq(2-) ligand acts as a model for cytotoxic naphthoquinones. Cyclic voltammetry data in aqueous solution have shown a quasi-reversible Co(III)/Co(II) process at E(1/2) = -0.26 V vs Fc/Fc(+). Reactivity studies revealed the dissociation of bhnq(2-) from the complex upon reduction of 1 with ascorbic acid, and a dependence of the reaction rate on the oxygen concentration suggests the occurrence of redox cycling.

Propolis is a natural product widely used for humans. Due to its complex composition, a number of applications (antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, anesthetic, cytostatic and antioxidant) have been attributed to this substance. Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a eukaryotic model we investigated the mechanisms underlying the antioxidant effect of propolis from Guarapari against oxidative stress. Submitting a wild type (BY4741) and antioxidant deficient strains (ctt1Δ, sod1Δ, gsh1Δ, gtt1Δ and gtt2Δ) either to 15 mM menadione or to 2 mM hydrogen peroxide during 60 min, we observed that all strains, except the mutant sod1Δ, acquired tolerance when previously treated with 25 μg/mL of alcoholic propolis extract. Such a treatment reduced the levels of ROS generation and of lipid peroxidation, after oxidative stress. The increase in Cu/Zn-Sod activity by propolis suggests that the protection might be acting synergistically with Cu/Zn-Sod.

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Here we present the synthesis of the dinuclear complex [Cu(II)2(L)Cl3] (1), where L is the deprotonated form of the 3-[(4,7-diisopropyl-1,4,7-triazacyclononan-1-yl)methyl]-2-hydroxy-5-methylbenzaldehyde ligand. The complex was characterized by single crystal X-ray diffraction, potentiometric titration, mass spectrometry, electrochemical and magnetic measurements, EPR, UV-Vis and IR. Complex 1 is able to increase the hydrolysis rate of the diester bis-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)phosphate (2,4-BDNPP) by a factor of 2700, and also to promote the plasmidial DNA cleavage at pH 6 and to inhibit the formazan chromophore formation in redox processes at pH 7. Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae (BY4741) as a eukaryotic cellular model, we observed that 1 presents reduced cytotoxicity. In addition, treatment of wild-type and mutant cells lacking Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (Sod1) and cytoplasmic catalase (Ctt1) with 1 promotes increased survival after H2O2 or menadione (O2˙(-) generator) stress, indicating that 1 might act as a Sod1 and Ctt1 mimetic. Considered together, these results support considerations regarding the dynamic behaviour of an unsymmetrical dinuclear copper(II) complex in solid state and in aqueous pH-dependent solution.

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