An integrated approach to the control of deltaE(1/2) values, and therefore comproportionation equilibria, through medium effects was delineated for multi-step redox reactions involving cationic products. deltaE(1/2) values (defined as E(1/2)(2+/1+) - E(1/2)(1+/0)) of the two one-electron oxidations of bis(fulvalene)dinickel, 1, were measured under 45 different conditions of solvent and supporting electrolyte. The smallest value, 212 mV, was found in anisole/0.1 M [NBu4]Cl and the largest, 850 mV, in CH2Cl2/0.02 M Na[B(C6H3(CF3)2)4]. By systematically changing the solvent properties, the degree of ion-pairing strengths of the supporting electrolyte ions, and the concentration of the electrolytes, a set of ideal properties was found for maximizing deltaE(1/2) values involving positively charged electrode products. Most importantly (i) the solvent must be of lower polarity and low donor strength and (ii) the supporting electrolyte must have a weakly coordinating anion (WCA). The contrast in ion-pairing tendencies of 1(2+) with WCAs (on the weak side) and halides (on the strong side) mimics that of dianions in THF, where longer chain tetraalkylammonium ions (weak ion pairing) contrast with alkali metal ions (strong ion pairing). The broad picture of medium effects is that of a "mirror image" of solvent and electrolyte properties that influence the tuning of deltaE(1/2) values for multi-electron systems. Application was made both to the four-step oxidation process and to the two-step reduction process of the tetraferrocenyl complex Ni(S2C2Fc2)2, Fc = Fe(C5H5)(C5H4), 2. The two-electron process 2(0/2-) is observed either as a single two-electron voltammetric wave or as two well-separated one-electron waves, depending on the medium. The consequences of the present model for the interpretation of deltaE(1/2) values in mixed-valence chemistry are discussed.

Microbial-electrode electron transfer is a mechanism by which microbes make their living coupling to electronic circuits, even across long distances. From a chemistry perspective, it represents a model platform that integrates biological metabolism with artificial electronics, and will facilitate the fundamental understanding of charge transport properties within these distinct chemical systems and particularly at their interfaces. From a broad standpoint, this understanding will also open up new possibilities in a wide range of high impact applications in bioelectrochemical system based technologies, which have shown promise in electricity, biochemical, chemical feedstock production but still require many orders of magnitude improvement to lead to viable technologies. Here we review opportunities to understand microbial-electrode electron transfer to improve electrocatalysis (bioelectricity) and electrosynthesis (biochemical and chemical production). We discuss challenges and the ample interdisciplinary research opportunities and suggest paths to take to improve production of fuels and chemicals at high yield and efficiency and the new applications that may result from increased understanding of the microbial-electrode electron transfer mechanism.Bio-electrochemical system (BES) can be expressed as the bidirectional electron transports between biotic and abiotic components, where the redoxactive microorganisms or bio-macromolecules act as the catalysts that facilitate the exchange process 1 . A glossary of important terms is provided in box 1. A model system of BES that has been widely studies is the Microbial Fuel Cell (MFCs). Similar to the conventional fuel cell, the microorganisms can transport electrons to the anodes of MFC after oxidizing the electron donors, thus generating the electrical flow toward the cathode 2 . Meanwhile, certain microorganisms are also known for their capability to reduce the electron acceptors such as nitrate, perchlorate or metals in the cathodes 3 . Other BESs such as Microbial electrolysis cells (MEC), Microbial electrosynthesis (MES),Microbial solar cells (MSCs), and Plant microbial fuel cells (PMFCs) also share similar electron transport strategy. These direct electron transport processes created a novel and promising possibility to bridge the fundamental researches in microbiology, electrochemistry, environmental engineering, material science and the applications in waste remediation & resource recovery, sustainable energy production, and bio-inspired material development. The basic working principles and the applications of these different BESs have been comprehensively reviewed by many different groups [4][5][6][7] . Bioelectrochemcial systemsEnzymatic electron transport process is one of the earliest BES models which received extensive attention due to the interests in development of amperometric biosensors and enzymatic fuel cell in late 20 th century [8][9][10][11][12] . In this system, the electrons generated from specific enzymatic reactions can be either...

Electrochemistry is a powerful tool for the study of oxidative electron-transfer reactions (anodic processes). Since the 1960s, the electrolytes of choice for nonaqueous electrochemistry were relatively small (heptaatomic or smaller) inorganic anions, such as perchlorate, tetrafluoroborate, or hexafluorophosphate. Owing to the similar size-to-charge ratios of these "traditional" anions, structural alterations of the electrolyte anion are not particularly valuable in effecting changes in the corresponding redox reactions. Systematic variations of supporting electrolytes were largely restricted to cathodic processes, in which interactions of anions produced in the reactions are altered by changes in electrolyte cations. A typical ladder involves going from a weakly ion-pairing tetraalkylammonium cation, [N(C(n)H(2n+1))(4)](+), with n > or = 4, to more strongly ion-pairing counterparts with n < 4, and culminating in very strongly ion-pairing alkali metal ions. A new generation of supporting electrolyte salts that incorporate a weakly coordinating anion (WCA) expands anodic applications by providing a dramatically different medium in which to generate positively charged electrolysis products. A chain of electrolyte anions is now available for the control of anodic reactions, beginning with weakly ion-pairing WCAs, progressing through the traditional anions, and culminating in halide ions. Although the electrochemical properties of a number of different WCAs have been reported, the most systematic work involves fluoro- or trifluoromethyl-substituted tetraphenylborate anions (fluoroarylborate anions). In this Account, we focus on tetrakis(perfluorophenyl)borate, [B(C(6)F(5))(4)](-), which has a significantly more positive anodic window than tetrakis[(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)]borate, [BArF(24)](-), making it suitable in a larger range of anodic oxidations. These WCAs also have a characteristic of specific importance to organometallic redox processes. Many electron-deficient organometallic compounds are subject to nucleophilic attack by the traditional family of electrolyte anions. With a view to testing the scope of the much less nucleophililic WCAs in providing a benign electrolyte anion for the generation of organometallic cation radicals, we carried out a series of studies on transition metal sandwich and half-sandwich compounds. The model compounds were chosen both for their fundamental importance and because their radical cations had been neither isolated nor spectrally characterized, despite many previous electrochemical investigations with traditional anions. The oxidation of prototypical organometallic compounds, such as the sandwich-structured ruthenocene and the piano-stool structured Cr(eta(6)-C(6)H(6))(CO)(3), Mn(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(3), Re(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(3), and Co(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(2), gave the first definitive in situ characterization of their radical cations. In several cases, the kinetic stabilization of the anodic products allowed the identification of dimers or unique dimer radicals ha...

A series of new dispiro[fluorene-9',6,9'',12-indeno[1,2b]fluorenes] (DSF-IFs) has been synthesised. These new building blocks for blue-light-emitting devices and electroactive polymers combine indenofluorene (IF) and spirobifluorene (SBF) properties. We report here our synthetic investigations towards these new structures and their thermal, structural, photophysical and electrochemical properties. These properties have been compared to those of IF and SBF. We also report the anodic oxidation of DSF-IFs that leads to the formation of non-soluble transparent three-dimensional polymers. The structural and electrochemical behaviour of these polymers has been studied. The first application of these building blocks as new blue-light-emitting materials in organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) is also reported.

The redox potentials of bis(fulvalene)dinickel, 1, and the tetrakis(ferrocenyl)nickel dithiolene complex 2 have been measured in a variety of nonaqueous electrolytes. The difference in E1/2 values of the two successive one-electron oxidations of 1 (i.e., DeltaE1/2 values) increased from a low of 212 mV in anisole/[NBu4]Cl to a high of 850 mV in CH2Cl2-Na[B(C6H3(CF3)2)4], reflecting an increase of over 1010 in the comproportionation constant (Kcomp = [1+]2/[1][12+]). Six reversible one-electron processes are possible for compound 2, the four oxidations arising from the ferrocenyl substituents, and the two reductions arising from the Ni dithiolene moiety. The E1/2 spreads of the four oxidation waves and the two reduction waves are both highly sensitive to medium effects. For both 1 and 2, the largest DeltaE1/2 values for cationic products are found in solvents of low polarity and donor strength containing electrolyte salts having large anions and small cations. Conversely, the smallest DeltaE1/2 values for anionic products are found under these conditions, culminating in the observation of a single two-electron reduction wave for 2/22- in CH2Cl2-Na[B(C6H3(CF3)2)4]. A combination of solvation and ion-pairing effects must be considered, and may be used to advantage, when using DeltaE1/2 values as a measure of electronic interactions between redox centers in compounds containing two or more electron-transfer sites.

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Abstract:New methods for modifying graphitic carbon surfaces without electrochemical assistance, and without the deliberate formation of carbon surface oxygen functionalities, have emerged in the past decade. The approaches rely on spontaneous reactions of aryldiazonium salts, primary amines, ammonia and iodine azide at room temperature, chemical reduction of aryldiazonium salts, reactions of alkenes and alkynes at elevated temperatures, and photochemical reactions of alkenes, alkynes, azides and diazirines. This review describes the methodology and scope of these reactions at graphitic carbon materials (excluding carbon nanotubes), examines mechanistic possibilities and future prospects.

Two series of DiSpiroFluorene-IndenoFluorene (DSF-IF) positional isomers, namely dispiro[2,7-diarylfluorene-9',6,9'',12-indeno[1,2-b]fluorenes], (1,2-b)-DSF-IFs 1 and dispiro[2,7-diarylfluorene-9',6,9'',12-indeno[2,1-a]fluorenes], (2,1-a)-DSF-IFs 2 have been synthesized. These violet-to-blue fluorescent emitters possess a 3π-2spiro architecture, which combines via two spiro links two different indenofluorene cores, that is, (1,2-b)-IF or (2,1-a)-IF and 2,7-substituted-diaryl-fluorene units. Due to their different geometric profiles, the two families of positional isomers present drastically different properties. The marked difference observed between the properties of (1,2-b)-DSF-IF (1) and (2,1-a)-DSF-IF (2) is discussed in terms of intramolecular π-π interactions occurring in (2,1-a)-DSF-IF (2) leading to conformationally-controllable intramolecular excimer formation. Indeed, the original geometry of the (2,1-a)-DSF-IF (2) family, with face-to-face "aryl-fluorene-aryl" moieties, leads to remarkable excimer emission through intramolecular π-π interactions in the excited state. Furthermore, the emission wavelengths can be gradually modulated by the control of the steric hindrance between the adjacent substituted phenyl rings. Thus, through a comparative and detailed study of the (1)H NMR, electrochemical and photophysical properties of DSF-IFs 1 and 2, we have evidenced the intramolecular π-π interactions occurring between the two "aryl-fluorene-aryl" moieties in the ground state and in the excited state. These properties have been finally correlated to the spectacular conformational change modeled by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Indeed, the two "aryl-fluorene-aryl" moieties switch from a staggered conformation in the ground state to an eclipsed conformation in the first excited state.