These results indicate that triggering of an anaphylactic response requires two phases (1) sensitization by aggregates through Peyer's patches and (2) efficient transfer of soluble protein across the epithelial barrier. As the majority of common food allergens tend to form aggregates, this may be of clinical importance.

Worldwide 300 million children and adults are affected by asthma. The development of asthma is influenced by environmental and other exogenous factors synergizing with genetic predisposition, and shaping the lung microbiome especially during birth and in very early life. The healthy lung microbial composition is characterized by a prevalence of bacteria belonging to the phyla Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes. However, viral respiratory infections are associated with an abundance of Proteobacteria with genera Haemophilus and Moraxella in young children and adult asthmatics. This dysbiosis supports the activation of inflammatory pathways and contributes to bronchoconstriction and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Exogenous factors can affect the natural lung microbiota composition positively (farming environment) or negatively (allergens, air pollutants). It is evident that also gut microbiota dysbiosis has a high influence on asthma pathogenesis. Antibiotics, antiulcer medications, and other drugs severely impair gut as well as lung microbiota. Resulting dysbiosis and reduced microbial diversity dysregulate the bidirectional crosstalk across the gut-lung axis, resulting in hypersensitivity and hyperreactivity to respiratory and food allergens. Efforts are undertaken to reconstitute the microbiota and immune balance by probiotics and engineered bacteria, but results from human studies do not yet support their efficacy in asthma prevention or treatment. Overall, dysbiosis of gut and lung seem to be critical causes of the increased emergence of asthma.

Recently, we have demonstrated that anti-ulcer drugs, such as H2-receptor blockers and proton pump inhibitors, promote the development of immediate type food allergy toward digestion-labile proteins in mice. The aim of this study was to examine the allergological relevance of these findings in humans. In an observational cohort study, we screened 152 adult patients from a gastroenterological outpatient clinic with negative case histories for atopy or allergy, who were medicated with H2-receptor blockers or proton pump inhibitors for 3 months. IgE reactivities to food allergens before and after 3 months of anti-acid treatment were compared serologically. Ten percent of the patients showed a boost of preexisting IgE antibodies and 15% de novo IgE formation toward numerous digestion-labile dietary compounds, like milk, potato, celery, carrots, apple, orange, wheat, and rye flour. Thus, the relative risk to develop food-specific IgE after anti-acid therapy was 10.5 (95% confidence interval: 1.44-76.48). The long-term effect was evaluated 5 months after therapy. Food-specific IgE could still be measured in 6% of the patients, as well as significantly elevated serum concentrations of ST2, a Th2-specific marker. An unspecific boost during the pollen season could be excluded, as 50 untreated control patients revealed no changes in their IgE pattern. In line with our previous animal experiments, our data strongly suggest that anti-ulcer treatment primes the development of IgE toward dietary compounds in long-term acid-suppressed patients.

Our experimental and epidemiologic data suggest that the intake of antiulcer drugs may lead to the induction of immediate-type food hypersensitivity toward hazelnut.

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The mucosal immune system is governed by a unique set of rules and regulations. The local microenvironment dictates the necessity for these differences. The intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) sits at the interface between an antigen-rich lumen and a lymphocyte-rich lamina propria (LP). The cross talk that occurs between these compartments serves to maintain intestinal homeostasis. IECs have the capacity to talk to LP lymphocytes, activating populations of unique regulatory T cells. These cells have the capacity to talk back to the epithelium, influencing epithelial cell growth and differentiation. This review looks at this cross talk and places it in the context of mucosal immunoregulation.

Background & Aims-Lymphoepithelial interactions in the gut can occur in the epithelium and the sub-epithelial space. We asked whether Normal, Crohn's Disease (CD) or Ulcerative colitis (UC) lamina propria lymphocytes (LPL) could promote intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) growth and differentiation.