RESUMO -O insucesso da maioria das iniciativas de restauração de florestas naturalmente biodiversas como a Mata Atlântica desencadeou um movimento intenso de discussão sobre a ciência e prática da restauração ecológica no Estado de São Paulo. Isso convergiu na construção participativa de uma resolução estadual de caráter técnico e orientador para restauração, a qual tem sido revisada e atualizada periodicamente em workshops que reúnem mais de 200 profissionais em cada evento. Essa resolução objetivou potencializar o estabelecimento de florestas biologicamente viáveis e com riqueza de espécies vegetais condizente com a dos ecossistemas de referência, a fim de garantir a persistência das florestas restauradas e proteger a biodiversidade nativa. As contribuições dessa resolução para o aperfeiçoamento e estímulo das ações de restauração são hoje evidentes. Entre 2003 e 2008, período de discussão dessa resolução, a produção de mudas de espécies arbustivas e arbóreas nativas no Estado cresceu de 13.000.000 (55 viveiros) para 33.000.000 (114 viveiros) por ano, e o número médio de espécies produzidas nos viveiros também aumentou de 30 para mais de 80, refletindo o crescimento das ações de restauração. Do ponto de vista deste estudo, esse instrumento legal tem servido como mecanismo legítimo de política pública ambiental e de proteção dos interesses coletivos da sociedade. Particularmente, ele guia e orienta a maior parte dos investimentos em restauração ecológica e aumenta as perspectivas de maximização dos benefícios para a sociedade, que podem e devem ser obtidos com a restauração, incluindo a persistência da biodiversidade nas paisagens antrópicas tropicais.Palavras-chave: Resolução SMA-08, Ecossistema de referência e Política pública ambiental. LEGAL INSTRUMENTS CAN ENHANCE HIGH-DIVERSITY TROPICAL FOREST RESTORATION

Around the world, there is growing desire and momentum for ecological restoration to happen faster, with better quality, and in more extensive areas. The question we ask is how can laws and governmental regulations best contribute to effective, successful, and broad-scale restoration? In the state of São Paulo, Brazil, there is a legal instrument (SMA 08-2008) whose aim is to increase the effectiveness of tropical forest restoration projects in particular. It establishes, among other things, requirements regarding the minimum number of native tree species to be reached within a given period of time in restoration projects and the precise proportion of functional groups or threatened species to be included when reforestation with native species is used as a restoration technique. There are, however, two differing perspectives among Brazilian restoration ecologists on the appropriateness of such detailed legal rules. For some, the rules help increase the chances that mandatory projects of ecological restoration will succeed. For the other group, there is no single way to achieve effective ecosystem restoration, and the existing science and know-how are far from sufficient to establish standardized technical and methodological norms or to justify that such norms be imposed. Both points of view are discussed here, aiming to help those developing new legislation and improving existing laws about ecological restoration. The precedents established in São Paulo, and at the federal level in Brazil, and the ongoing debate about those laws are worth considering and possibly applying elsewhere.

Dipteryx alata is a native fruit tree species of the cerrado (Brazilian savanna) that has great economic potential because of its multiple uses. Knowledge of how the genetic variability of this species is organized within and among populations would be useful for genetic conservation and breeding programs. We used nine simple sequence repeat (SSR) primers developed for Dipteryx odorata to evaluate the genetic structure of three populations of D. alata located in central Brazil based on a leaf sample analysis from 101 adults. The outcrossing rate was evaluated using 300 open-pollinated offspring from 25 seed-trees. Pollen dispersal was measured by parentage analysis. We used spatial genetic structure (SGS) to test the minimal distance for harvesting seeds in conservation and breeding programs. Our data indicate that the populations studied had a high degree of genetic diversity and population structure, as suggested by the high level of divergence among populations . The estimated outcrossing rate suggested a mixed mating system, and the intrapopulation fixation index was influenced by SGS. We conclude that seed harvesting for genetic conservation and breeding programs requires a minimum distance between trees of 196 m to avoid collecting seeds from related seed-trees.

Acrocomia aculeata is a native palm distributed widely throughout Brazil that is used in a diverse array of products from the food industry to biodiesel oil production. This study uses nine microsatellite loci to assess the genetic diversity, spatial genetic structure (SGS), and mating system of A. aculeata. A total of 200 samples were collected from four populations (Fusquinha-FU, Padre Josimo-PJ, Gleba XV-GB, and Amparo-AM), in São Paulo State, Brazil. We also collected fruits from 20 randomly selected seed trees in the FU population to assess mating patterns, for a total of 246 genotyped embryos. We identified a total of 103 alleles and all loci were polymorphic. The average observed heterozygosity ( H o ) ranged from 0.410 (AM) to 0.531 (FU) and expected heterozygosity ( H e ) ranged from 0.547 (PJ) to 0.615 (GB). The average fixation index ( F ) ranged from 0.043 to 0.254 for FU and AM populations, respectively. The coancestry coefficient ( xy ) was significant up to 38 m in PJ the population and 71 m in AM. Individual palm outcrossing rates were predominantly high ( t m = 0.985) and the paternity correlation ( r p (m) = 0.02) was significantly low, indicating a high probability of the occurrence of half-sibs.Compared to other palm species, the studied populations show high levels of genetic diversity. Our results confirm that A. aculeata is primarily allogamous, with no significant paternity correlation, and seeds should be harvested from at least 40 trees to ensure high levels of genetic diversity in seed collection programs.

Rev. Brasil. Biol., 58(4) ABSTRACT Pollination biology of Jacaratia spinosa (AUBL) ADC. (CARICACEAE) in a residual forest in southwest BrazilThe pollination biology of Jacaratia spinosa (Aubl) ADC. (Caricaceae) was studied in Mata de Santa Genebra, Campinas municipality, São Paulo state, Brazil (20º54'S; 47º05'W). Data from floral anthesis, nectar volume and sugar concentration, pollen viability, stigma receptivity, location of scent glands, reproduction systems and main visitors/potential pollinators were obtained. The species is dioicious and the masculine plants flourish for a larger period (52 days) than the feminine ones (22 days). Most of the flowers has night anthesis, lasting the masculine ones about 24 hours and the feminine ones, 48 hours. The masculine ones produce on the average, 112,5 ml of nectar and sugar concentration of 13,9%. The feminine ones didn't produce nectar, having been identified mimetism of the masculine ones by the feminine ones. The pollen viability didn't vary along the day (average 97,20%). There was production of fruits for agamospermy and for crossed fecundation. The main observed pollinators was moths, what corroborates with its characteristics of phalenophily syndrome; other insects meantime, as butterflies, also can contribute to its reproduction.Key words: Caricaceae, dioicism, Jacaratia, pollination. RESUMOA biologia da polinização de Jacaratia spinosa (Aubl) ADC. (Caricaceae) foi estudada na Mata de Santa Genebra, Campinas (20º54'S; 47º05'W), estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Foram obtidos dados de antese floral, volume e concentração de açúcar no néctar, viabilidade do pólen, receptividade do estigma, localização de glândulas de odor, sistemas de reprodução e principais visitantes/potenciais polinizadores. A espécie é dióica e as plantas masculinas florescem por um período maior (52 dias) que as femininas (22 dias). A maioria das flores tem antese noturna, durando as masculinas cerca de 24 horas e as femininas, 48 horas. As masculinas produzem, em média, 112,5 ml de néctar e concentração de açúcar de 13,9%. As femininas não produzem néctar, tendo sido identificado mimetismo das masculinas pelas femininas. A viabilidade do pólen não variou ao longo do dia (média 97,20%). Houve produção de frutos por agamospermia e por fecundação cruzada. Os principais polinizadores observados foram mariposas, o que corrobora com suas características de síndrome de falenofilia, havendo, entretanto, outros insetos, como borboletas, que podem contribuir para sua reprodução.Palavras-chave: Caricaceae, dioicismo, Jacaratia, polinização.

No abstract

Genetic studies in tropical tree species have found signs of decreased genetic diversity and increased levels of inbreeding and spatial genetic structure (SGS) in fragmented and exploited populations. The aim of this paper was to investigate genetic diversity, structure, and intrapopulation SGS using eight microsatellite loci for three Orbignya phalerata populations that have undergone different intensities of seed harvesting. From each population, we georeferenced and sampled 30 seedlings, 30 juveniles, and 30 adult trees. The total number of alleles over all loci (k), and observed (H o ) and expected heterozygosity (H e ) presented lower values for the population experiencing more intense fruit harvesting than less heavily exploited populations, suggesting that fruit harvesting may decrease genetic diversity. Null alleles were detected in practically all loci among seedlings, juveniles, and adults in all populations, indicating that the estimates of H o , H e , and fixation index (F) are biased. When corrected for null alleles (F Null ), the fixation index decreased for all samples, resulting in significantly higher than zero results for seedlings of all populations, but not for juveniles and adults of all populations. The comparison of F Null values between cohorts in the most heavily exploited population (ESP) suggests that inbred individuals are eliminated between seedling and adult stages. Significant SGS was detected up to 60 m in all populations, which indicates short distance seed dispersal. Genetic differentiation (G' ST ) between pairwise populations was related to spatial distance between populations, with the greatest difference between more distant populations.

This chapter addresses gene flow to wild relatives and its consequences. It reviews the evolutionary history of the genus Gossypium in relation to gene flow from cotton. It establishes the likely recipient populations of Gossypium and evaluates the likelihood of gene flow from G. hirsutum var. latifolium to potential recipient populations, the possibility of subsequent geographical spread of transgenes and the potential ecological effects resulting from gene flow.