The relative lack of associations between maternal diet or body composition and milk composition at Cebu is consistent with past studies and suggests that milk composition may be buffered against fluctuations in maternal dietary intake or nutritional status. We speculate that the tendency for milk composition to vary between populations faced with different nutritional ecologies, but to show minimal responsiveness to intake during lactation, may enhance the reliability of milk composition as a stable intergenerational cue of typical local environmental quality.

The association between maternal body composition, milk leptin, and infant growth persists in mothers with lean body composition. Milk leptin is not associated with growth in older infants.

Levels of overweight/obesity and inflammation in young adulthood, before pregnancy, are important predictors of inflammation in the third trimester of pregnancy. These results may have implications for addressing the growing concern about the contribution of obesity to adverse birth outcomes, and they suggest that factors that influence the regulation of inflammation, before pregnancy and independent of adiposity, may be important in shaping the inflammatory response to pregnancy.

Low hemoglobin levels of primiparous women in this sample might indicate increased nutritional stress associated with first pregnancy.

Energy and other nutrient intakes have been linked with obesity and cardiovascular disease (CVD) development. Intervention messages are best expressed as modifications in food consumption and diet behaviors rather than in nutrient levels. We examined diet behaviors and associated nutrient intakes (using 24‐hour food recall data) in 1909 Filipino young adults aged 21–22 (53% males) and their mothers (2018; aged 35–68) from the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey. The majority ate 3 meals/day (16% young adults and 22% mothers usually skip breakfast), and 77% usually ate snacks (mean 1.4/day). Buying ready‐cooked foods (RCF; 71% mothers, 83% young adults) and eating in fast food restaurants (FFR; 20% mothers, 50% young adults) are emerging trends in the country. Multivariable models show that compared to home cooked foods, the number of RCF in the diet was positively associated with mean calories/day and negatively associated with vitamin intakes. Most RCF are bought from neighborhood eateries and ambulant vendors which raises food safety issues. Fat intakes were positively associated with eating in FFR which merits concern given the increase in FFR in Cebu. Skipping breakfast was also positively associated with fat intakes congruent with studies showing that prolonged overnight fast promotes unhealthy eating later in the day. R01AG039443, R01HD054501 R01TW008288

Overweight (OW) duration and diet affect glucose levels. We examined whether diet modified the effect of OW duration on fasting glucose and having impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes (IFG/DM: FG>;=110mg/dL) in 1,887 women (ages 35–68y) in the 2005 Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey. OW (BMI>;=25kg/m2) duration was categorized as >;=10 y (25%), < 10 y (17%), had a history but not currently OW (10%) and never OW (48%). Using factor analysis, we identified 3 diet patterns: meats/sweets, vegetables/grains, and processed seafoods. Mean FG was 99.6 mg/dL; 14% had IFG/DM. For FG, linear regression results showed significant interaction between OW duration and the meats/sweets pattern (LR test p<0.04). OW duration was not significantly associated with FG among women who consumed low meats/sweets (lowest quartile): 1.6 (−10.1, 13.2) [COEFF (95% CI)] for women OW <10 yrs and 2.6 (−10.8,15.9) for women OW >;10yrs. For women who consumed higher amounts of meats/sweets, compared to never OW women, FG was 4.5 (− 2.0,11.4) and 18.8 (11.0, 26.5) mg/dL higher for women OW < 10y and OW >;=10y, respectively. Similarly, we found increased effect of OW duration on having IFG/DM among women who consumed greater meats/sweets. Results underscore the benefit of controlling meats and sweets consumption, especially among those who have been chronically OW. R01TW008288

Some studies suggest that increased iron intake may lead to diabetes risk possibly thru oxidative stress, inflammation, free fatty acid oxidation, insulin extraction and secretion. But, this has not yet been established in less developed countries where iron deficiency is likely to occur. We examined the association of iron intake with impaired fasting glucose/diabetes mellitus (IFG/DM: FG>;=110 mg/dL) using data from 1,871 women (ages 35–68 yr) from the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey in 2005. About 9% of women had IFG/DM. On average, women consumed 11.25±7.04 mg of iron daily. Logistic regression analyses adjusted for current BMI, age, total energy intake and other confounders showed that the odds of having IFG/DM increased with iron intake. Compared to the lowest quartile of iron intake, those in the highest quartile were 78% more likely to have IFG/DM [OR(95% CI): 1.78 (1.01–3.12)]. Results of this study suggest the need to further examine the link between iron intake and diabetes risk in less developed countries like the Philippines where iron deficiency anemia is still prevalent but diabetes has also become one of the major causes of mortality and morbidity. R01TW008288

The role of dietary calcium (Ca) as a determinant of blood pressure (BP) has not been firmly established, especially in developing countries like the Philippines where Ca intake is low and hypertension (Htn) prevalence is high. We examined how Ca intake relates to BP among Filipino women using data from 1,997 women (ages 35–68y) in the 2005 Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey. Dietary Ca intake was measured using two 24‐hr recalls (mean: 309 mg/d). Major dietary sources of Ca were fish (37%), creamers/milk/milk products (23%), and vegetables (11%). About 27% of women had Htn (BP>;=140/90 mmHg). Regression analyses adjusted for age, smoking, energy intake, and other confounders showed that low Ca intake (lowest quartile) is associated with higher BP and odds of having Htn. Women with low Ca intake had 3.8 mmHg (95% CI: 1.6–6.1) higher systolic BP and 46% higher odds of having Htn [OR 1.46 (1.11–1.92)]. For diastolic BP, the effect of low Ca intake increased as WC increased (p for interaction <0.1). For example, for women with 75cm WC, the effect of low Ca intake was 1.6 (.1–3.1) while for those with 95cm WC, the effect is 3.8 (1.5–6.0) mmHg. Although Ca intake has been associated with fat metabolism and deposition, the biological mechanism of this interaction is yet to be elucidated. Results suggest that increasing Ca intake may help decrease BP in this population and preventing high WC may enhance this benefit. R01TW008288