Desirable features of exosomes have made them a suitable manipulative platform for biomedical applications, including targeted drug delivery, gene therapy, cancer diagnosis and therapy, development of vaccines, and tissue regeneration. Although natural exosomes have various potentials, their clinical application is associated with some inherent limitations. Recently, these limitations inspired various attempts to engineer exosomes and develop designer exosomes. Mostly, designer exosomes are being developed to overcome the natural limitations of exosomes for targeted delivery of drugs and functional molecules to wounds, neurons, and the cardiovascular system for healing of damage. In this review, we summarize the possible improvements of natural exosomes by means of two main approaches: parental cell-based or pre-isolation exosome engineering and direct or post-isolation exosome engineering. Parental cell-based engineering methods use genetic engineering for loading of therapeutic molecules into the lumen or displaying them on the surface of exosomes. On the other hand, the post-isolation exosome engineering approach uses several chemical and mechanical methods including click chemistry, cloaking, bio-conjugation, sonication, extrusion, and electroporation. This review focuses on the latest research, mostly aimed at the development of designer exosomes using parental cell-based engineering and their application in cancer treatment and regenerative medicine. Graphic Abstract

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Objectives: In this article, novel montmorillonite nanoparticles (MON-NP) evaluated in order to facilitatethe sorption of Amoxicillin (AMO) from aqueous solutions in batch operations. Methods: Batch experiments were performed to study the influence of various experimental parameters such as contact time, adsorbent dosage, initial concentration of the AMO and temperatures at fixed solution pH. The Langmuir, Freundlich and Dubnin-Randkovich (D-R) models were subjected to sorption data to estimate sorption capacity, intensity and energy. Results: The optimum conditions of sorption were found as follows: a sorbent amountof 0.8 g in L of AMO solution (10 mg/L), contact time 90 min atfixed pH and temperature 7 and 25°C, respectively. To study the kinetics of removal process, three equations, i.e. Morris-Weber, Lagergren (pseudo first order) and pseudo second order were used. The AMO sorption process waswell described by the pseudo second order kinetic model. The maximum adsorption capacity (qe) from Langmuir isotherm model was determined to be 39.41 mg/g and for D-R isotherm was 32.47. Conclusion: The results indicate that MON-NP could be employed as a low-cost in wastewater treatment for the removal of AMO.

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