Two contrasting views prevail on groundwater use in situations of predominantly state-led irrigation development. The first considers 'groundwater as liberation', i.e., how, by capturing the irrigation initiative, farmers liberated themselves from 'state' water, enabling more intensive and productive agriculture. The second view -'groundwater as anarchy' -considers groundwater as a M. Kuper (*) Cirad,

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Much attention has been paid to the issue of groundwater depletion linked to intensive groundwater-based agriculture in (semi-)arid areas. Often referred to as the “overexploitation” of aquifers, groundwater depletion is generally attributed to the entire agricultural sector without distinguishing between different uses and users. Although it expresses a general concern for future users, the ambiguous term of “overexploitation” does not acknowledge the contested nature of groundwater use and emerging inequalities. Also, the impact of inequality on groundwater depletion is rarely questioned. The aim of this article is to investigate how and by whom groundwater is depleted, and in turn, how unequal access to groundwater fuels the socioeconomic differentiation of farms and groundwater depletion. Based on a detailed analysis of groundwater use from a user perspective in two irrigated areas in North Africa (Morocco and Algeria), this study shows how the context of groundwater depletion exacerbates—and is exacerbated by—existing inequalities. The paper concludes that knowing how much is withdrawn, where, and by whom provides helpful information for more informed groundwater management by a better understanding of the response of users to declining groundwater conditions and the interests and incentives of different social categories of famers to contribute to groundwater management. (Résumé d'auteur

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Groundwater resources in semi-arid areas and especially in the Mediterranean face a growing demand for irrigated agriculture and, to a lesser extent, for domestic uses. Consequently, groundwater reserves are affected and water-table drops are widely observed. This leads to strong constraints on groundwater access for farmers, while managers worry about the future evolution of the water resources. A common problem for building proper groundwater management plans is the difficulty in assessing individual groundwater withdrawals at regional scale. Predicting future trends of these groundwater withdrawals is even more challenging. The basic question is how to assess the water budget variables and their evolution when they are deeply linked to human activities, themselves driven by countless factors (access to natural resources, public policies, market, etc.). This study provides some possible answers by focusing on the assessment of groundwater withdrawals for irrigated agriculture at three sites in North Africa (Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria). Efforts were made to understand the different features that influence irrigation practices, and an adaptive user-oriented methodology was used to monitor groundwater withdrawals. For each site, different key factors affecting the regional groundwater abstraction and its past evolution were identified by involving farmers' knowledge. Factors such as farmer access to land and groundwater or development of public infrastructures (electrical distribution network) are crucial to decode the results of well inventories and assess the regional groundwater abstraction and its future trend. This leads one to look with caution at the number of wells cited in the literature, which could be oversimplified. (Résumé d'auteur

Au Maroc, l’exploitation individuelle des eaux souterraines a permis le développement rapide d’une agriculture irriguée intensive. Dans la plaine de Berrechid, la ressource est limitée et surexploitée. L’agence de bassin tente depuis une dizaine d’années de mettre en place une contractualisation avec différents acteurs pour réguler les prélèvements en eau souterraine à usage agricole. L’objectif de l’étude est d’analyser en quoi la catégorisation des agriculteurs, se distinguant par leur accès à l’eau et au foncier, et les interactions entre ces catégories d’agriculteurs, sont utiles pour penser la gouvernance de la nappe. Une fois la dynamique de l’agriculture irriguée retracée, des enquêtes ont permis d’établir une typologie d’agriculteurs, puis les arrangements et rivalités entre les différents types d’agriculteurs ont été caractérisés. Les résultats montrent que l’utilisation accrue des eaux souterraines a déclenché des rivalités pour l’accès à l’eau, ainsi que l’exclusion de certains agriculteurs dans un contexte de baisse de la nappe. Pour dépasser ces problèmes d’accès, certains agriculteurs mettent en place des arrangements coopératifs autour des différents facteurs de production (eau, terre, capital, savoir-faire, main-d’œuvre). Cependant, ces arrangements accentuent, paradoxalement, la surexploitation de la nappe et les rivalités, et entraînent la poursuite et l’évolution des formes d’arrangements coopératifs. La compréhension fine de la nature des relations entre différents types d’agriculteurs peut permettre d’inclure une réflexion sur l’équité sociale dans le projet de concession aux associations de producteurs, qui pour le moment semble ignorer ces relations.