Research on the limitations of dual-tasking might profit from using setups with a predictable sequence of stimuli and responses and assessing the acquisition of this sequence. Detrimental effects of dual-tasking on implicit sequence learning in the serial reaction time task (SRTT; Nissen & Bullemer, 1987)-when paired with an uncorrelated task-have been attributed to participants' lack of separating the streams of events in either task. Assuming that co-occurring events are automatically integrated, we reasoned that participants could need to first learn which events co-occur, before they can acquire sequence knowledge. In the training phase, we paired an 8-element visual-manual SRTT with an auditory-vocal task. Afterwards, we tested under single-tasking conditions whether SRTT sequence knowledge had been acquired. By applying different variants of probabilistic SRTT-tone pairings across three experiments, we tested what type of predictive relationship was needed to preserve sequence learning. In Experiment 1, where half of the SRTT-elements were paired to 100% with one specific tone and the other half randomly, only the fixedly paired elements were learned. Yet, no sequence learning was found when each of the eight SRTT-elements was paired with tone identity in a 75%-25% ratio (Experiment 2). Sequence learning was, however, intact when the 75%-25% ratio was applied to the four SRTT target locations instead (Experiment 3). The results suggest that participants (when lacking a separation of the task representations while dual-tasking) can learn a sequence inherent in one of two tasks to the extent that across-task contingencies can be learned first.
Have you ever thought about what it means not to act? Basically, most people think about nonactions (or "not responding") as depending on the existence of a pre-activated response which is then inhibited. The main problem when investigating the characteristics of such no-go responses is that they do not provide reaction times. Importantly, Miller (Psychol Res 70:484-493, 2006) recently showed that in a dual-task paradigm, forced go/no-go decisions in the secondary task lead to a backward crosstalk effect (BCE) in the reaction times of the primary task. Based on this experimental setup, we conducted three experiments to investigate the characteristics of "not responding." The goal of Experiments 1 and 2 was to compare forced-choice and free-choice no-go responses. In both experiments, we only found a BCE when participants were forced not to respond. We interpret these findings as a first hint that the BCE is not due to an active inhibition of a pre-activated response tendency. Rather, we assume that it is caused by an automatic activation of specific response features when merely perceiving the secondary stimulus (Hommel, J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 24:1368-1384, 1998). In the forced-choice condition, the stimulus unambiguously announces a no-go response. By contrast, this is not the case in the free-choice condition as here the stimulus only signals participants to freely decide to "go" or "not to go." Therefore, we tested in Experiment 3 rather directly if merely perceiving a stimulus unambiguously announcing a "no-go" causes a BCE. The results confirmed this. Overall, our results suggest that no-go responses do not differ conceptually from go responses.
The constraints in overlapping response selection have been established in dual-tasking studies with random sequence of stimuli and responses as well as random stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). While this approach makes it possible to control for advance activation of upcoming stimuli or responses, it leaves open whether such preparatory processing can indeed influence dual-task performance. We investigated whether and how the sequence of stimuli and responses and the sequence of SOAs can be learned and used under dual-tasking. In each trial, participants ( N = 28 in Experiment 1 and N = 30 in Experiment 2) were first presented with a random two-choice task followed by a four-choice Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT), presented in a sequence of length four (position sequence). The SOA (timing) sequence also had length four. In test phases, one or both of the sequences were randomized. Results showed that both position and timing sequences were learned and supported dual-task performance, suggesting that predictive processing with respect to timing and identity of stimuli and responses can help to circumvent the response selection bottleneck constraints. Furthermore, in contrast to previous work on acquisition of interval sequences in single tasking, we found that the sequence of what (i.e. stimulus) and the sequence of when (i.e. interval between two tasks) contributed independently to performance.
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