Reciprocity - the capacity to engage in social exchange that integrates inputs from multiple partners into a unified social event - is a cornerstone of adaptive social life that is learned within dyad-specific attachments during an early period of neuroplasticity. Yet, very little research traced the expression of children's reciprocity with their mother and father in relation to long-term outcomes. Guided by evolutionary models, we followed mothers, fathers, and their firstborn child longitudinally and observed mother-child and father-child reciprocity in infancy, preschool, and adolescence. In preschool, children's social competence, aggression, and prosocial behavior were observed at kindergarten. In adolescence, children's dialogical skills were assessed during positive and conflict interactions with same-sex best friends. Father-child and mother-child reciprocity were individually stable, inter-related at each stage, and consisted of distinct behavioral components. Structural equation modeling indicated that early maternal and paternal reciprocity were each uniquely predictive of social competence and lower aggression in preschool, which, in turn, shaped dialogical skills in adolescence. Father-adolescent reciprocity contributed to the dialogical negotiation of conflict, whereas mother-adolescent reciprocity predicted adolescents' dialogical skills during positive exchanges. Results highlight the role of parent-child reciprocity in shaping children's social collaboration and intimate relationships with non-kin members of their social world.

This article addresses child protection in close-knit religious communities. Specifically, it presents the findings of a qualitative research project that examined Ultra-Orthodox Jewish parents’ perceptions and ascribed meanings of child risk and protection based on fifty in-depth interviews with parents from Israel and the USA. Here, we hone in on one key theme that emerged from our analysis of the interviews, which the interviewees themselves referred to as ‘spiritual risk’. ‘Spiritual risk’ is a complex construct comprising the following three interrelated dimensions: (i) a decline in observance of the Torah and the commandments, (ii) violation of socio-cultural norms and rules and (iii) a decline in spiritual beliefs, including the sense of connection with G-d. In the eyes of parents, it is decline in these three dimensions that constitutes the ‘spiritual risk’ to the child. ‘Spiritual risk’ can be a consequence of parental maltreatment and can result in children and adolescents moving away from the Ultra-Orthodox religious world and leaving their community. The results of this study advocate context-informed and religious-sensitive prevention and intervention programmes. They also highlight the need to include context and religious competency in the training of professionals working with diverse communities.

Parent–child reciprocity plays a signicant role in shaping children's social interaction skills. The development of conflict management skills throughout childhood and adolescence impacts the individual's social adjustment. The increase in conflictual interaction with one's parents during adolescence affects the transformation of parent–adolescent interaction into a more mutual, equal relationship. Adolescents with ASD and their parents may struggle in this type of interaction due to the adolescents' social and regulatory impairments, in addition to their dependence on their parents' involvement and guidance. The current study aimed to evaluate differences in the way adolescents with and without ASD interact with their parents in a conflictual situation. In addition, the association between parent–adolescent reciprocity and the adolescent's social interaction with an unfamiliar peer was examined in the ASD group. Thirty adolescents with ASD and their parents and 30 typically developing (TD) controls were assessed during a standardized conflict interaction. In addition, adolescents with ASD took part in a conversation with an unfamiliar peer. Interactions were videotaped and coded. Results revealed that during the conflictual interaction, compared to their TD peers, adolescents with ASD were more involved in the conversation and less withdrawn from the parent, while their parents were more sensitive and less intrusive toward them. Parent–adolescent reciprocity was poorer in the ASD (compared to the TD) dyad and was positively associated with the adolescents' social‐conversational skills with a peer. These findings emphasize the different developmental trajectory parent–adolescent relationship takes in adolescents with ASD, and its impact on the adolescent's social skills. Autism Res 2019, 12: 263–273 © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Lay Summary The development of conflict management skills throughout childhood and adolescence impacts the individual's social adjustment. The ability of parents to engage in reciprocal social interaction with the children plays a significant role in shaping children's social interaction skills with peers and with other adults. The transition to adolescence is characterized by an increase in conflictual interaction with one's parents, which transforms the interaction between adolescents and their parents into a more mutual, equal relationship. Adolescents with ASD and their parents may struggle in this type of interaction due to the adolescents' social and emotional difficulties, and their dependence on their parents' involvement and guidance. However, the nature of parent–adolescent interaction, and particularly conflict management has rarely been studied. This study evaluated the way parents and their adolescents with ASD interact in a conflictual conversation, compared to parents and their typically developing adolescents. In addition, we examined how this type of interaction associated with adolescents' social conversation skills wi...

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contains clinical material for which the parents' written consent was obtained. The family's biographical information has been changed and disguised to assure the family's confidentiality and privacy.Daphna D. Ginio served as lead for writing-original draft. Hadar Behrendt served as lead for therapist. Hadar Behrendt, Maayan Shorer, and Esther Bamberger contributed equally to writing-original draft.