Studies of selected species of Lymnaeidae and Planorbidae showed that infection with bird schistosomes occurred in 14 of the 26 Polish lakes studied. In Planorbarius corneus larvae of Bilharziella polonica were found, and in Lymnaea stagnalis and Radix auricularia larvae of Trichobilharzia ocellata. In spite of their comparatively low prevalence, cercariae, potentially pathogenic to humans, may have caused dermatitis in patients registered in one of the regions under study. The low prevalence of infection among the host snails may have been compensated for by the enormous number of cercariae released by them, which, moreover, showed a long-lasting viability, particularly at low ambient temperature.

After numerous reports the local press about the “stinging water” in created on the Dzierżęcinka River—Water Valley reservoir and recognizing in bathers the symptoms of swimmers’ itch, environmental study on the presence of bird schistosome larvae in snail hosts was conducted. Snails belonging to Lymnaeidae and Planorbidae were collected at two sites: (i) part of anthropogenic reservoir (192 individuals) and (ii) the river part (37 individuals). Higher prevalence of Digenea was observed in snail populations living in Water Valley (29.8 %) compared to Dzierżęcinka River (21.3 %). The larvae of bird schistosomes were recorded in both localities in 1.8 % of collected snails. The prevalence of bird schistosomes reached 2.9 % in Planorbarius corneus, 2.8 % in Radix auricularia, and 5.9 % in Radix balthica/labiata. Laboratory tests have shown that at 19 °C the number of bird schistosome cercariae released from snail hosts significantly exceeded the number of cercariae of other identified Digenea species. It is worth underlining that despite the low prevalence of bird schistosomes, the high number of released cercariae was sufficient to create a real threat of swimmers’ itch in bathers. As indicated by the example presented, anthropogenic reservoirs create excellent conditions for Digenea species including bird schistosomes. In view of the real risk of people using the waters, tests on presence of the parasites in snail hosts should be included to the standard procedure of security control in bathing places.

This review presents the results of studies on the freshwater snail-trematode associations, carried out in Europe since the beginning of the 20th century. The great number of synonyms of snail and trematode specific names has made the cooperation between malacologists and parasitologists difficult. Here we provide a survey of larval trematodes (cercariae) based on Central, North and Western European literature. Whenever possible, the valid species name is provided, accompanied by synonyms, or just provisional names are used making up the largest part of the list. Trematodes with a definitely unclear systematic status are indicated as species incertae sedis. These include mostly trematodes which were attributed obviously erroneous names with poor or no description of their morphology. Although the provisional names inflate the number of trematode species and there are still many identification problems, we believe that this is another step in assessing the trematode species composition in Europe which will help not only parasitologists but also malacologists and contribute to their closer cooperation.

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The low number of articles on naturally trematode-infected snails results from the difficulty to obtain the quantitatively representative material. The main aim of our study was to check which age (size) groups of snails are the most susceptible to trematode invasion. Furthermore, we examined in which season the parasite prevalence is the highest. We collected Lymnaea stagnalis individuals in a nearshore zone of the Jeziorak Lake (the longest Polish lake located in northern Poland). The shell height of the snails was measured and the infestation by trematode larvae was determined. The logistic regression has shown that parasite prevalence increased significantly with the snail size (with the individuals >30 mm being the most infected), the distance from the beginning of the year (i.e., month) and the vicinity of summer.

Swimmer’s itch is a re-emerging human disease caused by bird schistosome cercariae, which can infect bathing or working people in water bodies. Even if cercariae fail after penetrating the human skin, they can cause dangerous symptoms in atypical mammal hosts. One of the natural methods to reduce the presence of cercariae in the environment could lie in the introduction of non–host snail species to the ecosystem, which is known as the “dilution” or “decoy” effect. The caenogastropod Potamopyrgus antipodarum—an alien in Europe—could be a good candidate against swimmer’s itch because of its apparent resistance to invasion by European bird schistosome species and its high population density. As a pilot study on this topic, we have carried out a laboratory experiment on how P. antipodarum influences the infestation of the intermediate host Radix balthica (a native lymnaeid) by the bird schistosome Trichobilharzia regenti. We found that the co–exposure of 200 P. antipodarum individuals per one R. balthica to the T. regenti miracidia under experimental conditions makes the infestation ineffective. Our results show that a non–host snail population has the potential to interfere with the transmission of a trematode via suitable snail hosts.

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Biological invasions are commonly observed in both the natural habitats and those which are altered by human activities. An understanding of the mechanisms involved in the successful introduction, establishment and invasion of exotic taxa is essential in