Glioblastoma (GBM) is known as a tumor type, which arises from astrocytes. Several studies indicated that GBM tumor cells are malignant. This is because of the fact that they consist of different cell types, which are reproducing very quickly and are also supported by a large network of blood vessels. The correct identification of various stages of GBM could help to better treat the patients with this disease. Therefore, new biomarkers such as exosomes and microRNAs (miRNAs) may help us to learn more about GBM and they may also lead to a more effective treatment for patients with GBM. Exosomes have emerged as biological vehicles, which can perform various tasks in carcinogenesis pathways such as PI3K/AKT, SOX2, PTEN, ERK, and STAT3. The miRNAs are known as small noncoding RNAs that are involved in several GBM pathogenic events. These molecules have key roles in various biological processes such as angiogenesis, metastasis and tumor growth. In this study, we highlighted various exosomes and miRNAs that could be used for diagnosis and/or prognosis biomarkers in patients with GBM.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is known as one of important autoimmune disorders which can lead to joint pain and damage throughout body. Given that internal (ie, genetic and epigenetic alterations) and external factors (ie, lifestyle changes, age, hormones, smoking, stress, and obesity) involved in RA pathogenesis.

Our study implicates a significant role of LEP and LEPR polymorphisms and also leptin levels in the risk of MS and its severity. Furthermore, our findings suggest LEP and LEPR polymorphisms as important predictors for increased serum leptin in Iranian MS patients. Although this study provides new clinically relevant information regarding genetic determinants modulating risk of MS, further investigations are necessary to understand better the mechanistic implications of these observations in the development of MS.

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