The planetary boundaries framework defines a safe operating space for humanity based on the intrinsic biophysical processes that regulate the stability of the Earth system. Here, we revise and update the planetary boundary framework, with a focus on the underpinning biophysical science, based on targeted input from expert research communities and on more general scientific advances over the past 5 years. Several of the boundaries now have a two-tier approach, reflecting the importance of cross-scale interactions and the regional-level heterogeneity of the processes that underpin the boundaries. Two core boundaries—climate change and biosphere integrity—have been identified, each of which has the potential on its own to drive the Earth system into a new state should they be substantially and persistently transgressed.

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Ecosystem management that attempts to maximize the production of one ecosystem service often results in substantial declines in the provision of other ecosystem services. For this reason, recent studies have called for increased attention to development of a theoretical understanding behind the relationships among ecosystem services. Here, we review the literature on ecosystem services and propose a typology of relationships between ecosystem services based on the role of drivers and the interactions between services. We use this typology to develop three propositions to help drive ecological science towards a better understanding of the relationships among multiple ecosystem services. Research which aims to understand the relationships among multiple ecosystem services and the mechanisms behind these relationships will improve our ability to sustainably manage landscapes to provide multiple ecosystem services.

A key challenge of ecosystem management is determining how to manage multiple ecosystem services across landscapes. Enhancing important provisioning ecosystem services, such as food and timber, often leads to tradeoffs between regulating and cultural ecosystem services, such as nutrient cycling, flood protection, and tourism. We developed a framework for analyzing the provision of multiple ecosystem services across landscapes and present an empirical demonstration of ecosystem service bundles, sets of services that appear together repeatedly. Ecosystem service bundles were identified by analyzing the spatial patterns of 12 ecosystem services in a mixeduse landscape consisting of 137 municipalities in Quebec, Canada. We identified six types of ecosystem service bundles and were able to link these bundles to areas on the landscape characterized by distinct social-ecological dynamics. Our results show landscapescale tradeoffs between provisioning and almost all regulating and cultural ecosystem services, and they show that a greater diversity of ecosystem services is positively correlated with the provision of regulating ecosystem services. Ecosystem service-bundle analysis can identify areas on a landscape where ecosystem management has produced exceptionally desirable or undesirable sets of ecosystem services.ecosystem services | landscape | spatial analysis | agriculture

Human domination of the biosphere has led to substantial gains in human welfare and economic development, but simultaneously threatens the planetary conditions that underpin societal wellbeing and prosperity 1-3 . Emerging challenges, including water scarcity, food security issues and biodiversity loss, are intractable, interconnected and influenced by a range of crossscale drivers and complex feedback mechanisms 4 . These challenges, and attempts to address them, involve multiple groups of people with different needs and interests and are beset by social, political and administrative uncertainty 5 .Researchers and practitioners alike are turning to knowledge co-production as a promising approach to make progress in this complex space. Conceptually, knowledge co-production is part of a loosely linked and evolving cluster of participatory and transdisciplinary research approaches that have emerged in recent decades. These approaches reject the notion that scientists alone identify the

Ecosystem service (ES) trade-offs arise from management choices made by humans, which can change the type, magnitude, and relative mix of services provided by ecosystems. Trade-offs occur when the provision of one ES is reduced as a consequence of increased use of another ES. In some cases, a trade-off may be an explicit choice; but in others, trade-offs arise without premeditation or even awareness that they are taking place. Trade-offs in ES can be classified along three axes: spatial scale, temporal scale, and reversibility. Spatial scale refers to whether the effects of the trade-off are felt locally or at a distant location. Temporal scale refers to whether the effects take place relatively rapidly or slowly. Reversibility expresses the likelihood that the perturbed ES may return to its original state if the perturbation ceases. Across all four Millennium Ecosystem Assessment scenarios and selected case study examples, trade-off decisions show a preference for provisioning, regulating, or cultural services (in that order). Supporting services are more likely to be "taken for granted." Cultural ES are almost entirely unquantified in scenario modeling; therefore, the calculated model results do not fully capture losses of these services that occur in the scenarios. The quantitative scenario models primarily capture the services that are perceived by society as more important-provisioning and regulating ecosystem services-and thus do not fully capture tradeoffs of cultural and supporting services. Successful management policies will be those that incorporate lessons learned from prior decisions into future management actions. Managers should complement their actions with monitoring programs that, in addition to monitoring the short-term provisions of services, also monitor the long-term evolution of slowly changing variables. Policies can then be developed to take into account ES trade-offs at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Successful strategies will recognize the inherent complexities of ecosystem management and will work to develop policies that minimize the effects of ES trade-offs.Ecology and Society 11(1): 28 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art28/ Ecology and Society 11(1): 28 two anonymous reviewers, and the many others who commented on previous versions of the "trade-offs working group" documents. Figures 2 and 4 were kindly prepared by Kathryn M. Rodríguez-Clark.

Increased phosphorus (P) fertilizer use and livestock production has fundamentally altered the global P cycle. We calculated spatially explicit P balances for cropland soils at 0.5°resolution based on the principal agronomic P inputs and outputs associated with production of 123 crops globally for the year 2000. Although agronomic inputs of P fertilizer (14.2 Tg of P·y −1 ) and manure (9.6 Tg of P·y −1 ) collectively exceeded P removal by harvested crops (12.3 Tg of P·y −1 ) at the global scale, P deficits covered almost 30% of the global cropland area. There was massive variation in the magnitudes of these P imbalances across most regions, particularly Europe and South America. High P fertilizer application relative to crop P use resulted in a greater proportion of the intense P surpluses (>13 kg of P·ha −1 ·y −1 ) globally than manure P application. High P fertilizer application was also typically associated with areas of relatively low P-use efficiency. Although manure was an important driver of P surpluses in some locations with high livestock densities, P deficits were common in areas producing forage crops used as livestock feed. Resolving agronomic P imbalances may be possible with more efficient use of P fertilizers and more effective recycling of manure P. Such reforms are needed to increase global agricultural productivity while maintaining or improving freshwater quality.agriculture | eutrophication | nutrient balances | phosphorus depletion D isparities between the nutrients applied to agricultural soils via fertilizer or manure and the nutrients removed by harvested crops result in nutrient imbalances that can influence environmental quality and productivity of agricultural systems (1). Growing consumption of inorganic phosphorus (P) fertilizers derived from mining of nonrenewable phosphate rock (2) has contributed to major increases in crop yields since the 1950s (3). Concurrent growth in fertilizer use and livestock production has more than tripled global P flows to the biosphere over preindustrial levels (4), resulting in P accumulation in some agricultural soils that acts as a driver of eutrophication in freshwater and coastal systems (5-7). At the same time, limited availability of P fertilizers in other regions has contributed to prolonged P deficits that can deplete soil P and limit crop yields (8-10). Although agricultural P surpluses and deficits have been documented for several regions (e.g., refs. 11 and 12), there is still limited understanding of the spatial patterns of P imbalances at the global scale.Patterns of nutrient imbalances across agricultural systems may reflect contrasting agricultural practices, economic development, and broader agricultural policies (1, 13). Understanding agricultural P use is key to managing global phosphate rock reserves (14) and mitigating the risk for potentially irreversible eutrophication of lakes (15). Despite considerable advances in the development of spatially explicit global nitrogen balances (e.g., ref. 16), most previous global P balance studi...

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