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Landscape plays a vital role in the development of military campaigns through the definition of geostrategic landmarks that structure the control of the territory, the imposition of constraints to the movement of armies and the identification of features that facilitate defence against attackers. These factors are linked to the study of past spatial mobility which is typically done by finding optimal pathways between pairs of points using Least-Cost Path analysis. This emphasis on optimality may not be ideal for case studies that need a general approach to spatial connectivity such as the study of conflict-related dynamics. Connectivity modelling based on Circuit Theory (CT) is an alternative approach to spatial mobility that captures the connectivity of an entire region identifying not only optimal paths but also bottlenecks, dead-ends and any other spatial feature that may impact movement. We present here a framework to study landscapes of conflict using connectivity modelling; the framework combines CT, visibility analysis and statistical hypothesis testing to understand the reasons behind the assault and destruction of Puig Ciutat (NE Iberian Peninsula) during Julius Caesar’s civil war. Results suggest that the site exerted decisive control over a highly connected area linking two possible logistical bases (Emporion and Massalia) to the armies fighting at Ilerda (49 BC).
The Centurion was a key figure of Roman warfare over a span of several centuries. However, their real role in battle is still a matter of discussion. Historical sources suggest that their impact in the efficiency of the Roman battle line was highly disproportionate to their individual actions, considering their low numbers. In the past decades a number of authors have proposed different descriptive models to explain their relevance, highlighting factors such as an improvement on unit cohesion or high levels of aggressiveness, which made them lead the charges against the enemy.However, the lack of a quantitative framework does not allow to compare and test these working hypotheses.This paper suggests an innovative methodological approach to explore the problem, based on computer simulation. An Agent-Based Model of roman legions is used as a virtual laboratory, where different hypotheses are tested under varying scenarios. Results suggest that the resilience of formations to combat stress increase exponentially if they contain just a small percentage of homogeneously distributed warriors with higher psychological resistance. Additionally, the model also shows how the lethality of the entire formation is reinforced when this selected group is located at the first line of the formation, even if individually they are not more aggressive or skilled than the average. The interpretation of the simulated patterns in terms of Roman warfare suggest that the multiple roles of the centurions observed in the sources were not caused by changes in tactics or values, but can be strictly explained by an increase in their experience and overall combat performance.
Archaeological research conducted in the NE part of the Iberian peninsula points to a period of generalized crisis around 200 B.C., when many settlements appear to have been destroyed and hurriedly abandoned. Traditionally, this phenomenon has been linked to two phases of military activity in the peninsula described in the classical sources: the Second Punic War (218-206 B.C.), and, slightly later, the repression of indigenous revolts, the best-known example of which was led by the consul Cato in 195 B.C. The difficulty lies in the chronological proximity of these two phases, separated by barely a decade. As a result, from the archaeological evidence it is extremely difficult to attribute recorded destruction to one or the other phase.Castellet de Banyoles was an Iberian settlement of the Ilercavones tribe, situated on a large triangular platform looking out over a depression created by the river Ebro. Through its excellent strategic position it controlled the watercourse, the ford across the river, and the communication route linking the interior of the peninsula with the coast and thus with Tarraco, capital of the new province of Hispania Citerior from 197 B.C. (fig. 1). Occupying an area of 4.2 ha, it was the largest inhabited site on the lower Ebro during the Iberian period. Its complex defensive system was formed by a narrow isthmus protected by two pentagonal towers (unparalleled in the peninsula) and a casemate wall. Iberian drachmae, imitating types from the Greek city of Emporion, were probably minted here. Luxury goods of gold and silver have also been found, pieces of lead bearing the Iberian script, and significant traces of metallurgical activity. The settlement had a complex, developed urban structure, with streets up to 10 m wide, covered drains, houses, and buildings of various sizes for public or display purposes. Thus it had the hallmarks of a town: unusual size, concentrated population, defenses, administration, coinage, housing, urban structures, and luxury items pointing to a high degree of social differentiation. 1 Since 1998, the settlement has been excavated by the Research Group for Classical, Protohistoric and Egyptian Archaeology (GRACPE) at the University of Barcelona. 2 Between 2007 and 2009, the same team conducted a systematic exploration of 11 ha lying next to the path leading to the entrance to the town (fig. 2). The results of these two projects, together with study of the (mostly unpublished) written and archaeological materials from the campaigns of the first half of the 20th c., have allowed us to document the destruction of Castellet de Banyoles, clarify its chronology, and tentatively identify its assailants as the Roman legions. 1 D. Asensio, M. T. Miró and J. Sanmartí, "Darreres intervencions arqueològiques al Castellet de Banyoles (Tivissa, Ribera d'Ebre): una ciutat ibèrica en el segle III aC," in Món Ibèric al països Catalans. XIII Col·loqui Int. d'Arqueologia de Puigcerdà (Puigcerdà 2005) vol. I, 615-27. 2 Funded by grant 2007ACOM 00030 from the AGAUR (Agència d'4 J.-M...
In recent decades, conflict archaeology has renewed study of the Roman Republican military, with Hispania as one of the most prolific areas of research. Following this trend, since 2006 the University of Barcelona has conducted archaeological investigations at several sites in the lower Ebro basin. When no structures or archaeological layers remained in situ, surface survey became a key methodology. Based on the artifacts retrieved during surface survey, this article identifies four new military establishments dated to the first half of the 1st c. BCE and reinterprets the campaigns of the Sertorian War in northeastern Spain.
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