In this paper, we offer a theoretical characterization of the middle voice as distinct from the passive voice, and address the cross-linguistic morphological variation in realizing these two non-active voices. We identify the following derivations: (1) anticausative, (2) reflexive (and reciprocal), (3) dispositional middle, (4) medio-passive, and (5) passive. We propose that the voice head in derivations 1-4 is µ (middle), and that it is π (passive) in 5. We argue that a syntactic construction of the various derivations allows for the flexibility in the distribution of the various PP adjuncts found with different roots, without postulating the ambiguity assumed in lexicalist theories.

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The paper examines the linguistic expression of habituality showing that two concepts must be distinguished: gnomic habituality and actualized habituality. It is claimed, on the basis of Modern Hebrew, that the two concepts are derived from non-quantificational habitual operators -Hab which is modal and yields gnomic habituality, and Φ Hab which is aspectual and yields actualized habituality. The core meaning of both operators is iteration over a contextually long interval. Syntactically, the operators differ with respect to their position: Hab is argued to be a VP-level adverb and Φ Hab -an aspectual head. This is correlated with the fact that gnomic habituality is expressed via the simple form of the verb while the expression of actualized habituality involves periphrasis. The paper ends with a diachronic consideration of the Hebrew periphrastic form suggesting that its habitual use can already be detected in Biblical Hebrew.

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