The current study deals with the detailed morphology investigation of eight Cypsela species belonging to tribe Cichoreae. The different Cypsela types were described, explained, compared, and their taxonomic significance is discussed in detail. Light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have been used to highlight quantitative and qualitative characters of underestudied species. Cypsela exhibit great diversity in macro and micromorphological features such as shape, color, length, width, anticlinal and periclinal wall patterns, surface patterns, epicuticular projections. Majority of Cypsela species were brownish in color and their size ranges from 2.16 to 3.98 mm in length and 1.16 to 0.82 mm in breadth. A great diversity in Cypsela shapes like oblanceolate to obovate, obovoid to cylindrical, obvate, narrowly lanceolate were observed. Most of the platelets having epicuticular projections were observed. The surface pattern on the cypsela surface varied from rugose papillate, verrucose papillate, and striated. On the basis of considerable variations observed, the present study can assist as useful constraints at various taxonomic levels. The aim of the present study is to provide a comprehensive description of the Cypsela morphology and to determine the extent to which these micro morphological data can be used as a taxonomic character to delineate various taxa belonging to the tribe Cichoreae.

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The aim of the study was to visualize the micromorphology of Amaranthaceous pollen using scanning electron microscopy collected from the Thal Desert. Field collection was conducted from July to September 2021. A total of 14 taxa of the family Amaranthaceae were collected which belong to nine genera. Achyranthes aspera, Aerva javanica, Aerva lanata, Amaranthus graecizans, Amaranthus retroflexus, Amaranthus viridis, Bassia indica, Chenopodium album, Chenopodium ficifolium, Chenopodium murale, Digera muricata, Haloxylon stocksii, Salsola tragus, and Suaeda fruticosa were studied in terms of pollen morphotypes. Pollen were acetolyzed and observed under optical and scanning microscopy. Qualitative and quantitative characters were measured to analyze the pollen to uncover its taxonomic significance. Qualitative characters observed were the shape of pollen in polar and equatorial views; the most frequent shape observed was spheroidal in the polar view, whereas in the equatorial view, prolate spheroidal was the dominant shape. Exine ornamentation is the key characteristic of pollen which is very helpful, and eight different types of ornamentations were observed in collected taxa: smooth sparsely granulate, scabrate-spinulose, microspinulose perforate, microechinate scabrate to metareticulate, granulate, nanospinulate, granulate-spinulose perforate, granulate-perforate echinate, and microechinate perforate. Periporate-type aperture was observed among all taxa. Mesoporia, ektexinous bodies, and tectum features also show variations among Amaranthaceous grains. In quantitative character, A. retroflexus recorded highest in polar view 26.3 μm and the lowest was of C. album 12.2 μm. Highest P/E index ratio was recorded in S. fruticosa (1.12) whereas the lowest for D. muricta (0.94). Exine thickness was highest in S. tragus 2.15 μm and lowest in A. graecizans 0.78 μm. The maximum number of pores was recorded as 32-36 in D. muricata. Artificial taxonomic keys were constructed based on findings that reinforce the importance of the micromorphological ultrastructural diversity of pollen among Amaranthaceous taxa. It was concluded that the descriptions of pollen morphotypes presented greatly contribute to our understanding of desert species identification.

Bee bread is a unique natural product made by bees and good for human health. It has many bioactive molecules that can treat or prevent diseases. In this study, melissopalynological methods were used to examine five bee bread samples. Major plant sources found in bee bread were Lotus spp., Trifolium spp., and Xeranthemum spp., which are from the Fabaceae and Asteraceae families. Then, the amount of phenolic compounds and major carotenoids in bee bread (BB) samples were quantified. Gallic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin, and kaempferol were found in all BB samples, with β-carotene being the most abundant carotenoid in all but BB1. In addition, the total phenolic/flavonoid content and antioxidant activities of all BB samples were determined. Total flavonoid, total phenolic, DPPH * , and ABTS * + values were varied between 5.6 -10.00 mg GAE/g DW, 1.2 -4.3 mg QE/g DW, 1.2 -5.5 mg TEAC/g DW, and 2.6-15.4 mg TEAC/g DW, respectively.

Bee bread is a bee product obtained as a result of fermentation of pollen stored by honey bees in the cells of the honeycomb. Palynological analysis, chemical composition, antioxidant activity of bee bread and its cytotoxic effect against human lung carcinoma (A549), human prostate cancer (DU 145) and human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cell lines were investigated in this study. 25 plant taxa were identified with palynological analysis. Fatty acids, cyclic, aromatic, phenolic, terpenoid, diterpen and metallic complex structures were seen in GC-MS results. FTIR consequence were compatible with GC-MS results and the structure types of FTIR results were seen in the dominant compounds of GC-MS results. Radical scavenging activity (RSA) of bee bread showed inhibition variability between 20.15 ± 0.68% and 93.18 ± 0.44% depending on the concentration. In addition, the EC50 value was measured as 80.08 ± 0.10 mg/mL. Bee bread exhibited moderately cytotoxic effect at all concentrations (15.625 - 2000 µg/mL) against A549, DU 145, and SH-SY5Y cell lines. Bee bread can be used in medical fields because of it’s antioxidant and anticancer properties.

Due to their distinct characteristics and possible uses in a variety of disciplines, nanoparticles have attracted a lot of attention recently. One area of interest is the synthesis of nanoparticles using natural sources such as bee pollen. The research aims to evaluate the usability of bee pollen extract‐based magnesium nanoparticles (MgNPs). First, a palynological study was used to determine the plant source of bee pollen. The nanoparticle was characterized using scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X‐ray analysis, transmission electron microscopy, X‐ray diffractometry, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results revealed cubic‐shaped MgNPs with an average size range of 36–40 nm. Afterward, nanoparticles were evaluated for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and neurotoxic properties. It was determined that the total antioxidant capacity, phenolic (TPC), flavonoid (TFC) content, DPPH radical scavenging, and antimicrobial activity of the nanoparticles were lower than pollen extract. At the same time, nanoparticles have less toxicity than bee pollen.

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Bee pollen contains many nutrients, including minerals. Elements are minor substances of bee pollen, they play a crucial role in identifying its quality. As a food supplement, concentrations of essential macro and microelements, and harmful trace elements have to be verified to determine its quality and safety. This study aimed to identify the element contents of bee pollens from different botanic sources. Firstly, we applied melissopalynological analysis to find the botanical origins of bee pollen samples. Then, it was determined the concentrations of 13 elements in the samples. Element concentration was measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Potassium (K) occurred at the highest concentrations in samples (8666.67-9623.33), followed by magnesium (Mg) (808.08-672.08), sodium (Na) (263.00-349.67), calcium (Ca) (261.33-294), iron (Fe) (96.00-110), Zn (33.77-57.00), Manganese (Mn) (20.15-33.85), Copper (Cu) (5.27-9.60), Nickel (Ni) (1.13-2.48), Chromium (Cr) (1.95-2.20), Selenium (Se) (0.72-1.03) and Cobalt (Co) (0-008) respectively as mg kg-1. Target hazard quotients (THQ), hazard index (HI), and recommended daily allowance (RDA) values were calculated with these results. Considering the THQ values, it was determined that the consumption of bee pollen was safe for adults, but not suitable for consumption by children. At the same time it was concluded from this study that bee pollen can be a good mineral source in terms of essential elements, K, Mg, Se, Mn, Na, Ca, Fe, Cu., and Cr