Spectral sensitivity functions S(lambda) of single photoreceptor cells in 43 different hymenopteran species were measured intracellularly with the fast spectral scan method. The distribution of maximal sensitivity values (lambda max) shows 3 major peaks at 340 nm, 430 nm and 535 nm and a small peak at 600 nm. Predictions about the colour vision systems of the different hymenopteran species are derived from the spectral sensitivities by application of a receptor model of colour vision and a model of two colour opponent channels. Most of the species have a trichromatic colour vision system. Although the S(lambda) functions are quite similar, the predicted colour discriminability curves differ in their relative height of best discriminability in the UV-blue or blue-green area of the spectrum, indicating that relatively small differences in the S(lambda) functions may have considerable effects on colour discriminability. Four of the hymenopteran insects tested contain an additional R-receptor with maximal sensitivity around 600 nm. The R-receptor of the solitary bee Callonychium petuniae is based on a pigment (P596) with a long lambda max, whereas in the sawfly Tenthredo campestris the G-receptor appears to act as filter to a pigment (P570), shifting its lambda max value to a longer wavelength and narrowing its bandwidth. Evolutionary and life history constraints (e.g. phylogenetic relatedness, social or solitary life, general or specialized feeding behaviour) appear to have no effect on the S(lambda) functions. The only effect is found in UV receptors, for which lambda max values at longer wavelengths are found in bees flying predominantly within the forest.

The mechanisms of incomplete penetrance in Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy are elusive. Giordano et al. show that mitochondrial DNA content and mitochondrial mass are both increased in tissues and cells from unaffected mutation carriers relative to affected relatives and control individuals. Upregulation of mitochondrial biogenesis may represent a therapeutic target.

Two cautionary points, one perhaps encouraging and another less so, emerge from our study. First, it is evident that a high mutation rate is not always bene®cial. The adaptive neighbourhood of an adaptive peak can constrain evolvability, despite a high mutation rate. A high rate can lead to a high mutational load, as seen during the evolution by clone B. Thus, evolutionary changes in a population of RNA viruses, whether under clinical treatment or otherwise, should not automatically be interpreted as adaptive to the virus. Second, as had already been noted 12 , if multiple peaks exist, a shift to a new adaptive peak can be triggered by a costly resistance mutation and the ensuing compensatory mutations. If some peaks are higher, drugs should be used with caution not only because resistance can evolve but also because drug treatment can lead to the evolution of viruses that are more ®t rather than less. M Methods Strains and culture conditionsThe RNA bacteriophage f6 used in this study is a laboratory clone descended from the original isolate 15 . Populations A and B were generated in a previous study 7 . They are the end points of populations propagated using bottlenecks of 100 and 33 phage, respectively, to allow ®tness recovery after acquisition of a common deleterious mutation. Pseudomonas syringae sv. phaseolicola, the standard host of f6, was obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC# 21781), and Pseudomonas pseudocaligenes ERA, an alternate host, was obtained from L. Mindich. Details of diluting, ®ltering, culture and storage of phage and bacteria are published 16,17 . All phage and bacteria were grown in LC medium at 25 8C.

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We measured visual performance in achromatic and chromatic spatial tasks of mercury-exposed subjects and compared the results with norms obtained from healthy individuals of similar age. Data were obtained for a group of 28 mercury-exposed subjects, comprising 20 Amazonian gold miners, 2 inhabitants of Amazonian riverside communities, and 6 laboratory technicians, who asked for medical care. Statistical norms were generated by testing healthy control subjects divided into three age groups. The performance of a substantial proportion of the mercury-exposed subjects was below the norms in all of these tasks. Eleven of 20 subjects (55%) performed below the norms in the achromatic contrast sensitivity task. The mercury-exposed subjects also had lower red-green contrast sensitivity deficits at all tested spatial frequencies (9/11 subjects; 81%). Three gold miners and 1 riverine (4/19 subjects, 21%) performed worse than normal subjects making more mistakes in the color arrangement test. Five of 10 subjects tested (50%), comprising 2 gold miners, 2 technicians, and 1 riverine, performed worse than normal in the color discrimination test, having areas of one or more MacAdam ellipse larger than normal subjects and high color discrimination thresholds at least in one color locus. These data indicate that psychophysical assessment can be used to quantify the degree of visual impairment of mercury-exposed subjects. They also suggest that some spatial tests such as the measurement of red-green chromatic contrast are sufficiently sensitive to detect visual dysfunction caused by mercury toxicity. Correspondence

The diurnal Dipsadidae snakes Philodryas olfersii and P. patagoniensis are closely related in their phylogeny but inhabit different ecological niches. P. olfersii is arboreal, whereas P. patagoniensis is preferentially terrestrial. The goal of the present study was tocompare the density and topography of neurons, photoreceptors, and cells in the ganglion cell layer in the retinas of these two species using immunohistochemistry and Nissl staining procedures and estimate the spatial resolving power of their eyes based on the ganglion cell peak density. Four morphologically distinct types of cones were observed by scanning electron microscopy, 3 of which were labeled with anti-opsin antibodies: large single cones and double cones labeled by the antibody JH492 and small single cones labeled by the antibody JH455. The average densities of photoreceptors and neurons in the ganglion cell layer were similar in both species (∼10,000 and 7,000 cells·mm^-2, respectively). The estimated spatial resolving power was also similar, ranging from 2.4 to 2.7 cycles·degree^-1. However, the distribution of neurons had different specializations. In the arboreal P. olfersii, the isodensity maps had a horizontal visual streak, with a peak density in the central region and a lower density in the dorsal retina. This organization might be relevant for locomotion and hunting behavior in the arboreal layer. In the terrestrial P. patagoniensis, a concentric pattern of decreasing cell density emanated from an area centralis located in the naso-ventral retina. Lower densities were observed in the dorsal region. The ventrally high density improves the resolution in the superior visual field and may be an important adaptation for terrestrial snakes to perceive the approach of predators from above.

This study showed a correlation between the mean RNFL thickness and the pupillary light response. A decrease in the number of ipRGCs is potentially related to the reduced RNFL thickness.