No abstract

In this study, we attempted to better delineate the changes in corticospinal excitability that accompany perceptual to motor transformations when people are asked to observe, image or imitate actions. Motor evoked potentials (MEP) from transcranial magnetic stimulation were recorded in the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle of the dominant hand (15 right, 4 left) in five different conditions: (1) passive observation; (2) observation to imitate; (3) imagery; (4) imitation; and (5) counting backwards mentally. MEPs were also recorded at rest at the beginning and at the end of the session to establish baseline (BL) values. For the observation conditions, participants (n = 19, 18-38 years) watched video sequences (5 s) of hand actions performed by a model with the right arm (passive observation: scissors; observation to imitate: OK sign). Active imitation produced the greatest MEP facilitation compared to baseline, followed by the two observation conditions and the imagery conditions, which all produced similar levels of facilitation (post hoc comparisons). Mental counting produced some facilitation, but this effect was inconsistent. Baseline MEPs remained stable at the end of the session. A further comparison between right-handers (n = 15) and left-handers (n = 4) revealed no difference in the pattern of modulation across conditions. The similarity found between observation and imagery of hand actions in terms of corticospinal facilitation is interpreted in the light of the motor-simulation theory of Jeannerod [Neuroimage 14 (2001)], which proposes that perceiving actions involves neural simulation of the same action by the observer, thereby explaining the parallel between actions observed and actions imaged at the representational level.

We compared two self-as-a-model interventions: self-modelling (viewing oneself perform an adaptive behaviour) and selfobservation (viewing oneself perform at current skill level). Operating within Zimmerman's (1989Zimmerman's ( , 2000 theory of selfregulated learning, we examined the effect of the modelling interventions on three self-regulatory processes (self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and self-satisfaction), as well as physical performance. Thirty-three children were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups. The two self-as-a model groups received the modelling intervention just before physical practice, whereas the control group received physical practice only. Analyses of the retention scores revealed significant differences for all dependent measures. Post hoc testing showed consistently that the self-modelling group performed better than the self-observation and control groups, and that the two latter groups performing similarly. These results provide support for the implementation of self-modelling interventions with children when teaching motor skills.

There were two main objectives of this research. First, we wanted to examine whether video feedback of the self (self-observation) was more effective for motor skill learning when the choice to view the video was provided to the learner (learner-controlled, LC) as opposed to an experimenter-controlled (EC) delivery. Secondly, we explored whether there were differences in the self-regulatory processes of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, as well as perceived choice between the LC and EC conditions. Two groups (LC and EC) of children (M age of 11.2 years; SD = 1.89) attempted to learn a progression of trampoline skills during a 2-day acquisition phase in which video self-observation was available. The second acquisition day was followed by a no self-observation retention test 1 day later. It was hypothesized that, during retention, the LC group would be more self-efficacious about their ability to progress through the trampoline skills, show greater intrinsic motivation and perceived choice, and go further in skill progression than the EC group. Analysis of the acquisition data showed the LC group had greater increases in self-efficacy as compared to the EC group. Results of the retention test showed that the participants in the LC group obtained higher scores on the intrinsic motivation and perceived choice measures and had higher skill progression scores as compared to the EC group. Regression analysis showed that group assignment and self-efficacy were significant predictors of the physical performance benefits noted in retention. These findings are discussed within Zimmerman’s (2004) self-regulation of learning model.

The primary purpose of this study was to use synchronized skaters to examine the influence of imagery perspective on the cognitive and motivational functions of imagery during a five-week imagery training program. To this end, 16 novice synchronized skaters participated in an imagery intervention that incorporated both cognitive and motivational imagery. The Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ: Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) was used to assess changes in the skaters’ use of cognitive and motivational images as a result of the training program. The results of a MANOVA indicated that skaters increased their use of cognitive specific and cognitive general imagery, regardless of their preferred imagery perspective. Furthermore, neither group showed changes in their use of imagery for motivational functions. The findings are discussed within the context of Hardy’s (1997) proposal that a particular imagery perspective is beneficial for the learning and performance of motor skills if it provides visual information that is otherwise not available to the performer.

The current study examined whether expectations, assumed to be created by the positive reputation of an athlete, produced a bias in judging at either the encoding or evaluation phase of sport performance appraisal. The short programs of 14 female figure skaters were evaluated by judges to whom the athletes were either known or unknown. Ordinal rankings were found to be higher when skaters were known by the judges as compared to when they were unknown. Furthermore, skaters received significantly higher technical merit marks when known, although artistic marks did not differ. No significant differences were found for the identification of elements or associated deductions, measures which were assumed to be indicative of the encoding phase of judging. These findings suggest that a reputation bias does exist when judging figure skating, and that it is present during the evaluation phase of sport performance appraisal, as reflected by the ordinal and technical merit marks.

The learning advantages of self-controlled feedback schedules compared to yoked schedules have been attributed to motivational influences and/or information processing activities with many researchers adopting the motivational perspective in recent years. Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2005) found that feedback decisions made before (Self-Before) or after a trial (Self-After) resulted in similar retention performance, but superior transfer performance resulted when the decision to receive feedback occurred after a trial. They suggested that the superior skill transfer of the Self-After group likely emerged from information processing activities such as error estimation. However, the lack of yoked groups and a measure of error estimation in their experimental design prevents conclusions being made regarding the underlying mechanisms of why self-controlled feedback schedules optimize learning. Here, we revisited Chiviacowsky and Wulf’s (2005) design to investigate the learning benefits of self-controlled feedback schedules. We replicated their Self-Before and Self-After groups, but added a Self-Both group that was able to request feedback before a trial, but could then change or stay with their original choice after the trial. Importantly, yoked groups were included for the three self-controlled groups to address the previously stated methodological limitation and error estimations were included to examine whether self-controlling feedback facilitates a more accurate error detection and correction mechanism. The Self-After and Self-Before groups demonstrated similar accuracy in physical performance and error estimation scores in retention and transfer, and both groups were significantly more accurate than the Self-Before group and their respective Yoked groups (p’s < 0.05). Further, the Self-Before group was not significantly different from their yoked counterparts (p’s > 0.05). We suggest these findings further indicate that informational factors associated with the processing of feedback for the development of one’s error detection and correction mechanism, rather than motivational processes are more critical for why self-controlled feedback schedules optimize motor learning.

Although coaches might perpetuate RAEs, other influential social agents might include parents, which ought to be investigated in future research.