California sea lions breed along the Pacific Coast of the United States, south to Baja California, Mexico, and throughout the Gulf of California. Although the population in the United States has been increasing over the last 15 years, the status in the Gulf of California is unknown. The last published census in 1994 yielded an estimate of 31,393 animals, but some rookeries have subsequently declined in abundance. The aim of this study is to provide a new estimate of population size for California sea lions in the Gulf of California and to examine the relative risk of extinction among thirteen sites using census data from 1970-2004. Our initial population estimate for 2004 is 17,484 including 4,299 pups, and the total number of sea lions when correction factors were applied was between 24,062 and 31,159. Four of the thirteen rookeries exhibited increasing trends: the two northernmost (Consag and San Jorge), the southernmost (Los Islotes), and San Esteban in the central gulf. The remaining rookeries were either stable or declining in abundance. During our analysis of total population and pup production trends, we identified a group of sea lion rookeries that are growing in total numbers and pup production, and exhibit low probability of extinction. Another group shows total abundances decreasing, pup production declining, negative population growth, and a high probability of extinction. Finally, a third group of rookeries exhibit high fluctuations in abundance and no clear Sea Lions of the World Alaska Sea Grant College Program • AK- SG-06-0, 2006 population trend. Rookeries with maximum probability of extinction and declining trends are situated at or near Angel de la Guarda Island (central gulf). We discuss several possible causes of these declines, including the influence of sardine in the diet of sea lions.

Southern sea lions (Otaria flavescens) forage in coastal fishery grounds in shallow waters, where they interact with coastal fishing activities. The main objective of this research was to evaluate the predation of southern sea lions on artisanal fishery catches and thus determine whether interactions with sea lions affected catches. Between July 1997 and March 1998, we observed 53 fishing events onboard artisanal fishing boats in four localities. The presence and number of sea lions around the boat and the numbers of each fish species consumed by sea lions were recorded by an onboard observer. To estimate the damage caused by sea lions to fishery catches, we considered two scenarios, a conservative scenario and a maximized scenario. Predation on catches was observed in 50.9% of all the fishing events and up to four sea lions were sighted in 67.9% of fishing events. Considering a conservative scenario, predation varied from 0.8 to 9.1% of the catch per unit effort (CPUE) depending on the location. Considering the maximized scenario, predation varied from 3.4 to 46.2%. However, no significant relationship was found between CPUE and the number of sea lions in any locality or with either type of fishing gear. Furthermore, CPUE did not differ in the presence or absence of sea lion interactions and predation per unit effort did not vary between localities or seasons. It was concluded that neither the presence of sea lions nor the damage they cause were responsible for variations in CPUE.

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Animals that breed in coastal colonies, such as pinnipeds, usually attract tourism, which can negatively affect their resting and breeding behaviour if not managed properly. One strategy to reduce human disturbance is to set up fences, but little is known about their local effectiveness. Our purpose was to assess the behavioural responses of South American fur seals (Arctocephaalus australis) towards tourist approaches before and after the implementation of fences in Cabo Polonio colony (Uruguay). We found that human disturbance levels were similar between years and that the presence of a fence reduced (1) overall fur seal responses to tourists by 60%, (2) the most intense behavioural responses (threat, attack, leaving the colony) by more than half, (3) the responses to large tourist groups (>2 people), which were the most disturbing, (4) the responses to closer (<10 m) tourist approaches, and (5) the responses involving more intrusive tourist behaviours (running, shouting, hand waving). Overall, we showed that after the erection of the fence not only human-wildlife interactions were reduced but also the most stressful fur seal behavioural responses. Although further studies are necessary, our results suggest that the implementation of fences can be a simple and affordable means of minimising human disturbance effects on pinnipeds at local levels (e.g., within colonies), particularly if combined with other strategies (e.g., changes in tourist attitudes).

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in skin and bone of South American sea lions from Brazil and Uruguay were analysed to test the hypothesis that trophic overlap between the sexes is lower during the pre-breeding season than throughout the rest of the year. The isotopic values of skin and bone were used to infer the trophic relationships between the sexes during the pre-breeding period and year round, respectively. Prey species were also analysed to establish a baseline necessary for interpreting the stable isotope ratios of skin and bone. Standard ellipse areas, estimated using Bayesian inference in the SIBER routine of the SIAR package in R, suggested that males and females used a wide diversity of foraging strategies throughout the year and that no differences existed between the sexes. However, the diversity of foraging strategies was largely reduced during the pre-breeding period, with all the individuals of each sex adopting similar strategies, but with the two sexes differing considerably in stable isotope values and the ellipse areas of males and females not overlapping at all. Nevertheless, the results revealed a general increase in the consumption of pelagic prey by both sexes during the pre-breeding period. The progressive crowding of individuals in the areas surrounding the breeding rookeries during the pre-breeding period could lead to an increase in the local population density, which could explain the above reported changes.

California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) rookeries in the Gulf of California are structured genetically in distinct groups. Despite this evidence for regional differentiation, the sea lion population of the Gulf of California is managed as a single unit. To prioritize the allocation of limited resources for conservation and to improve the effectiveness of management actions, ecological differences among rookeries should also be considered. This is important to be able to further define and subsequently manage the rookeries on a regional level. The aim of the present study was to identify patterns of similarity among California sea lion rookeries in the Gulf of California, using nine demographic, biological, ecological, and biogeochemical databases: population censuses, trace metal content in bone, diet diversity, presence of Leptospira serovarieties, stable isotopes, incidence of osteoarthritis, sea surface temperature, and chlorophyll a concentration. A second objective was to characterize each region on the basis of these variables in order to focus management efforts. To examine the overall structure of the sea lion rookeries in the Gulf of California, we analyzed data for different combinations of variables and rookeries using multivariate analysis. The scenario with the highest explanatory power resulted in the separation of the rookeries into four groups: Northern Gulf, Ángel de la Guarda, Central Gulf, and Southern Gulf. Diet and sea surface temperature were the variables that contributed most strongly to the definition of the groups. Groupings showed geographic coherence and were consistent with previously proposed genetic units and oceanographic regions of the Gulf of California. The resulting multivariate pattern should facilitate the management of California sea lion rookeries, provide better tools to protect against environmental contingencies, and help to guide future management plans.

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