Poultry are well recognized as possible carriers of Salmonella species. As part of the local foods movement, backyard poultry flocks have increased in popularity in recent years. Between 1996 and 2012, 45 outbreaks of human Salmonella infections linked to live poultry from mail-order hatcheries were documented. This review examines the history of live poultry-associated salmonellosis in humans in the United States, the current status of the issue, and what can be done to help prevent these illnesses. An integrated One Health approach involving the mail-order hatchery industry, feed stores, healthcare providers, veterinarians, and backyard flock owners is needed to help prevent live poultry-associated salmonellosis.

Live poultry-associated salmonellosis is an emerging public health issue in the United States. Public and animal health officials collaborated to investigate one of the largest (356 cases, 39 states) of these outbreaks reported to date. A case was defined as illness in a person infected with the outbreak strain of Salmonella Typhimurium with illness onset between 1 March and 22 October 2013. The median patient age was seven years (range: < 1–87 years); 58% of ill persons were children ≤ 10 years, 51% were female, 25% were hospitalized; 189 (76%) of 250 patients reported live poultry exposure in the week before illness; and 149 (95%) of 157 reported purchasing live poultry from agricultural feed stores. Traceback investigations identified 18 live poultry sources, including 16 mail-order hatcheries. Environmental sampling was conducted at two mail-order hatcheries. One (2.5%) of 40 duplicate samples collected at one hatchery yielded the outbreak strain. Live poultry are an important source of human salmonellosis, particularly among children, highlighting the need for educational campaigns and comprehensive interventions at the mail-order hatchery and agricultural feed store levels. Prevention and control efforts depend on a One Health approach, involving cooperation between public and animal health officials, industry, health professionals, and consumers.

Human salmonellosis linked to contact with live poultry is an increasing public health concern. In 2012, eight unrelated outbreaks of human salmonellosis linked to live poultry contact resulted in 517 illnesses. In July 2012, PulseNet, a national molecular surveillance network, reported a multistate cluster of a rare strain of Salmonella Braenderup infections which we investigated. We defined a case as infection with the outbreak strain, determined by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, with illness onset from 25 July 2012-27 February 2013. Ill persons and mail-order hatchery (MOH) owners were interviewed using standardized questionnaires. Traceback and environmental investigations were conducted. We identified 48 cases in 24 states. Twenty-six (81%) of 32 ill persons reported live poultry contact in the week before illness; case-patients named 12 different MOHs from eight states. The investigation identified hatchery D as the ultimate poultry source. Sampling at hatchery D yielded the outbreak strain. Hatchery D improved sanitation procedures and pest control; subsequent sampling failed to yield Salmonella. This outbreak highlights the interconnectedness of humans, animals, and the environment and the importance of industry knowledge and involvement in solving complex outbreaks. Preventing these infections requires a 'One Health' approach that leverages expertise in human, animal, and environmental health.

Broiler chickens on several farms from a single poultry company experienced neurological signs and mortality in chicks between 3 days and 10 days of age over a 3-week period after use of a fowlpox-vectored infectious laryngotracheitis virus vaccine in ovo. At necropsy the lungs contained numerous tan or gray, opaque to translucent, 0.5-to 2.0-mm nodules in the parenchyma. Microscopic lesions were a multifocal severe lymphohistiocytic and heterophilic bronchopneumonia. Immunohistochemistry was positive for fowlpox virus in macrophages and lymphocytes, and polymerase chain reaction on paraffin-embedded lung tissues was positive for a fowlpox vector virus commonly used as a vaccine. The cause of the neurological signs was not determined. Keywords chickens, in ovo vaccination, fowlpox infectious laryngotracheitis vaccine, lungSeveral farms in a commercial broiler company experienced elevated mortality and neurological clinical signs of tremors, recumbency, torticollis, and wry necks in chicks ranging from 3 days to 10 days of age over a 3-week period in the spring of 2008. No management changes had been instituted at the farm level. Affected farms had a change in vaccination at the hatchery. Chicks on these farms received in ovo a vectored vaccine that contains fowlpox virus (FPV) with infectious laryngotracheitis virus gene inserts. Ages of vaccination ranged from 17.5 to 19.0 days of embryonation. The company veterinarian noted that flocks vaccinated at 17.5 to 18.0 days were more severely affected than those vaccinated at 18.5 or 19.0 days of embryonation. Gross lesions noted in the field included multiple tan to gray, opaque to translucent, 0.5-to 2.0-mm nodules within the lung parenchyma. Samples collected on the farms included formalin-fixed tissues (brains and lungs) and swabs for bacteriology of the brains. Additional farms submitted dead chicks, formalin-fixed and fresh tissue, or live chicks to the Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center laboratory at the University of Georgia for additional testing, including virus isolation and mycology culture. A total of 6 submissions for different farms were analyzed.Brain swabs were negative for bacteria, and virus isolation was negative for avian encephalomyelitis virus in the brains. Lung cultures were negative for bacteria and fungi. Brains and lungs were routinely processed, embedded, and sectioned at 4 mm with routine hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining. All submissions (cases Nos. 1-6) had similar changes in the lungs. Microscopic changes in the lungs included multiple areas of numerous histiocytes and lymphocytes centered on the parabronchi. The inflammatory cells filled the airways of several parabronchi and extended from secondary bronchi (Figs. 1, 2). There were occasional areas of acute necrosis of the inflammatory cells with mild numbers of heterophils migrating through the histiocytes to the foci of necrotic debris. Approximately one half of the lung parenchyma was affected in several sections. Gomori methenamine-silver staining was negative for f...

Chicken infectious anaemia virus (CIAV) is a widely distributed immunosuppressive agent. SPF flocks and eggs used for vaccine production and diagnostics must be CIAV-free. Detection of CIAV infection in SPF flocks involves primarily serology or other invasive methods. In order to evaluate different types of samples for rapid detection of CIAV infection, a trial was conducted in serologically negative broiler breeder pullets vaccinated with a commercial live-attenuated CIAV vaccine. Controls and vaccinated groups were sampled before and after vaccination. Invasive and non-invasive samples were used for CIAV DNA detection by real-time PCR. Seroconversion occurred at 14 days post-inoculation (DPI) in the vaccinated group, whereas CIAV genome was detected by qPCR at 7 DPI in both invasive and non-invasive samples. Only invasive samples remained qPCR positive for CIAV DNA by 21 DPI despite seroconversion of the chickens.