Prevalence, symptoms, and treatment of depression suggest that major depressive disorders (MDD) present sex differences. Social stress-induced neurovascular pathology is associated with depressive symptoms in male mice; however, this association is unclear in females. Here, we report that chronic social and subchronic variable stress promotes blood-brain barrier (BBB) alterations in mood-related brain regions of female mice. Targeted disruption of the BBB in the female prefrontal cortex (PFC) induces anxiety- and depression-like behaviours. By comparing the endothelium cell-specific transcriptomic profiling of the mouse male and female PFC, we identify several pathways and genes involved in maladaptive stress responses and resilience to stress. Furthermore, we confirm that the BBB in the PFC of stressed female mice is leaky. Then, we identify circulating vascular biomarkers of chronic stress, such as soluble E-selectin. Similar changes in circulating soluble E-selectin, BBB gene expression and morphology can be found in blood serum and postmortem brain samples from women diagnosed with MDD. Altogether, we propose that BBB dysfunction plays an important role in modulating stress responses in female mice and possibly MDD.

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Résumé Contrairement à la perspective « Nothing works » de Martinson (1974), l’approche « What works ? » du traitement correctionnel s’est centrée sur la possibilité que le traitement correctionnel soit efficace dans la réduction de la récidive criminelle des délinquants. Les preuves empiriques examinées dans le présent article corroborent le fait que l’application des principes risque-besoins-réceptivité d’Andrews et Bonta (2006) donnent les bases d’un modèle efficace de réhabilitation. Pourtant, malgré les grands progrès réalisés dans le développement et la mise en oeuvre d’un traitement correctionnel fondé sur des données probantes, il subsiste des sphères qui nécessitent un approfondissement. Dans cet article, trois questions souvent négligées relativement à la réhabilitation du délinquant sont aussi examinées, à savoir la nécessité de prendre en considération les enjeux motivationnels chez les délinquants, l’importance des compétences et attitudes du personnel, et la nécessité de documenter et d’évaluer continuellement les pratiques de réhabilitation.

Children placed in residential treatment centers (RTCs) typically present challenging behavior including aggression. In this context, restraint and seclusion (R&S) are seen as “last resort” strategies for educators to manage youth aggression. The use of R&S is controversial, as they can lead to psychological and physical consequences for both the client and the care provider and have yet to be empirically validated as therapeutic. The objectives of this systematic review are to identify the factors related to R&S use in RTCs for youth and to review the interventions aiming to reduce the use of R&S. The identification of these factors is the first step to gaining a better understanding of the decision-making process leading to the use of R&S and ultimately to reducing the use of these strategies to a minimum. Thus, the present systematic review was conducted by searching PubMed, CINAHL, ERIC, and PsycNET for articles published between 2002 and 2017. Key words used were synonyms of R&S, youth, and RTCs. Thirty-one studies met the inclusion criteria: must report on factors affecting the use of R&S in RTCs, must be conducted in RTCs for youth under the age of 21, and must report on original and empirical data. Factors related to the characteristics of the client, the care provider, and the environment, as well as to the implementation of programs for the reduction of R&S, were found to influence the use of R&S in RTCs. A conceptual model is presented. The implementation of programs to reduce R&S use is discussed.

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