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Abstract. A major accomplishment of the recently completed Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Program was the development of an ocean observing system to support seasonal-to-interannual climate studies. This paper reviews the scientific motivations for the development of that observing system, the technological advances that made it possible, and the scientific advances that resulted from the availability of a significantly expanded observational database. A primary phenomenological focus of TOGA was interannual variability of the coupled oceanatmosphere system associated with E1 Nifio and the Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Prior to the start of TOGA, our understanding of the physical processes responsible for the ENSO cycle was limited, our ability to monitor variability in the troi•ical oceans was primitive, and the capability to predict ENSO was nonexistent. TOGA therefore initiated and/or supported efforts to provide real-time measurements of the following key oceanographic variables: surface winds, sea surface temperature, subsurface temperature, sea level and ocean velocity. Specific in situ observational programs developed to provide these data sets included the Tropical AtmosphereOcean (TAO) array of moored buoys in the Pacific, a surface drifting buoy program, an island and coastal tide gauge network, and a volunteer observing ship network of expendable bathythermograph measurements. Complementing these in situ efforts were satellite missions which provided near-global coverage of surface winds, sea surface temperature, and sea level. These new TOGA data sets led to fundamental progress in our understanding of the physical processes responsible for ENSO and to the development of coupled ocean-atmosphere models for ENSO prediction.And thorough this distemperature we see the seasons alter

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Using data from a community survey of 5196 ethnic minority and 2867 white respondents, together with data on local group concentration from the 1991 Census, the hypothesis was tested that ethnic group concentration is associated with lower levels of reported psychiatric symptoms. The hypothesis was broadly confirmed, both for within- and between-group differences. However, the effect was found to be modest in size and in one group, the Pakistani sample, was reversed. The findings are inconsistent with an explanation based on selection or drift. Linguistic factors contributed to, but did not explain the effects. Evidence on victimisation and mutual support suggests that social causation, in the form of reduced exposure to direct prejudice and increased social support, is a likely cause of the effect.

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