Sylvatic rabies was present in Slovenia between 1973 and 2013, with the red fox as the main reservoir of the rabies virus. The first oral rabies vaccination (ORV) control program in foxes started in 1988, using the manual distribution of baits. Significant improvement of fox vaccination was achieved with the aerial distribution of baits, starting in 1995 and successfully finished with the final, fifty-ninth vaccination campaign in 2019. Between 1979 and 2019, a total of 86,471 samples were tested, and 10,975 (12.69%) rabies-positive animals were identified. Within the ORV, two different vaccines were used, containing modified live virus strain Street Alabama Dufferin (SAD) B19 and SAD Bern, while the last ORV campaigns were completed in 2019, with a vaccine containing a genetically modified strain of SPBN GASGAS. Molecular epidemiological studies of 95 rabies-positive samples, originating from red foxes, badgers, cattle, dogs, martens, cats, and horses, revealed a low genetic diversity of circulating strains and high similarity to strains from neighboring countries. During the elimination program, few vaccine-induced rabies cases were detected: three in red foxes and one case in a marten, with no epidemiological relevance. Slovenia has been officially declared a country free of rabies since 2016.
Coronaviruses (CoV) are widely distributed pathogens of human and animals and can cause mild or severe respiratory and gastrointestinal disease. Antigenic and genetic similarity of some CoVs within the Betacoronavirus genus is evident. Therefore, for the first time in Slovenia, we investigated the genetic diversity of partial 390-nucleotides of RNA-dependent-RNA polymerase gene (RdRp) for 66 human (HCoV) and 24 bovine CoV (BCoV) positive samples, collected between 2010 and 2016 from human patients and cattle with respiratory disease. The characterized CoV strains belong to four different clusters, in three separate human clusters HCoV-HKU1 (n = 34), HCoV-OC43 (n = 31) and HCoV 229E (n = 1) and bovine grouping only as BCoVs (n = 24). BCoVs from cattle and HCoV-OC43 were genetically the most closely related and share 96.4–97.1% nucleotide and 96.9–98.5% amino acid identity.
In the 1950s, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis/infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IBR/IPV) disease was clinically detected and documented in cattle for the first time in Slovenia. The bovine herpes virus 1 (BoHV-1) was confirmed several times from infected herds by virus isolation on cell cultures. To keep the IC virus-free, high biosecurity measures were introduced. Before entering the IC, all calves are serologically tested and quarantined. Bulls in Slovenian insemination centres (IC) have been negative for IBR /IPV infection since 1979. From 1985 to 1991, few large-scale studies of the prevalence of IBR/IPV were carried out. In 1985, a high percentage (56.9%) of serologically positive animals were found in large state farms with Holstein Friesian cattle. Epidemiological studies in farm with bulls' mother herds were also carried out in the farms with Simmental and Brown cows. Antibodies against BoHV-1 were detected in the serum of 2.3% of Brown cattle and 3.5% of Simmental cattle. In the year 2000, 3.4% of bulk tank milk samples from 13,349 dairy farms were detected BoHV-1 antibodies positive. The highest percentage of positive animals was found in regions with an intensive grazing system (6.2% positive) and the lowest percentage in the east part of Slovenia (0.9% positive) on farms with mostly Simmental cattle. In 2006, a total 204,662 sera of cattle older than 24 months were tested for the presence of BoHV-1 antibodies and positive cattle were detected in 3.6% of tested farms. These farms kept 34,537 animals that were potential carriers of the BoHV-1. Most of the positive farms kept Holstein Friesian cattle, descendants from the state-owned farms, which were privatised or closed after 1990. In 2015, the Administration of the Republic of Slovenia for Food Safety, Veterinary and Plant Protection issued a rule that describes the conditions for granting and maintaining the status of BoHV-1 free holdings. The rule provides a voluntary control programme for breeders who want to obtain BoHV-1 free status and are willing to cover all the cost of acquiring and maintaining that status. There has been very little response from breeders.
Pseudorabies (PR) is one of the most economically important diseases in domestic pigs. Since 2010, Slovenia has been free of PR in the domestic pig population, but the disease is endemic in the wild boar population, which can pose a real threat to domestic pigs and other animal species, including dogs. Between 2006 and 2020, infections with the PR virus (PRV) were reported in two pets and three hunting dogs from Slovenia that were found to have a direct contact with the wild boar or raw wild boar or pork meat. Typical clinical signs of PRV infection, including characteristic facial itching, cytopathic effect in cell cultures, positive immunocytochemistry, and positive PCR results confirmed the presence of PRV in all five cases investigated. A phylogenetic comparison of the partial glycoprotein C (gC) genomic region revealed that the Slovenian PRV isolates belong to clade A, with 95.78–100% nucleotide identity with strains isolated from dogs, domestic pigs, and wild boars from Europe. Within phylogenetic comparison of the partial glycoprotein D (gD) and partial glycoprotein E (gE) genomic regions of Slovenian PRV isolates, 100% and 99.12%–100% nucleotide identities were detected, respectively, suggesting low diversity between the PRV strains identified in dogs in Slovenia. This study provides the first molecular characterization of PRV in dogs and suggests that similar PRV strains circulate in the wild boar populations in this geographic area.
In Slovenia, the control of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) infections started in 1994. Since 2014, a voluntary programme has been running according to the national rules that prescribe the conditions for recognising, acquiring, and maintaining a BVDV-free status for an individual herd. The principle is based on periodical laboratory testing and preventive measures that need to be strictly implemented in a herd. Between 2014 and 2020, a total of 348 herds were included in BVDV antibody testing, and 25.0% of tested herds were detected to be BVDV antibody positive. To recognise the BVDV-free status of the herd, the breeder should provide two consecutive tests with intervals of at least 6 months in all animals in the age from 7 to 13 months, with negative results for BVDV antibodies in ELISA. The BVDV-free status of the herd can be maintained by implementing preventive measures and can be renewed each year with one laboratory test in the age group of animals from 7 to 13 months for antibodies in ELISA. During the 7 years of the voluntary programme, 236 herds were included in the detection of BVDV in individual herds by real-time RT-PCR method and the elimination of positive animals from herds. In 71 (31.3%) herds, at least one BVDV-positive animal was detected, with the identification of a total of 267 persistently infected (PI) animals, representing an average of 2.9% of tested animals. The cost of testing for an average herd, recognised as BVDV-negative, and maintaining its BVDV-free status within the implemented voluntary programme, was €97.64/year, while for the average positive herd, the laboratory costs for elimination of BVDV were €189.59/year. Only limited progress towards eradication at the national level has been achieved in Slovenia since 2014.
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