During 1984-96, welfare and tax policy changed dramatically. The Earned Income Tax Credit was expanded, welfare benefits were cut, welfare time limits were added and cases were terminated, Medicaid for the working poor was expanded, training programs were redirected, and subsidized or free child care was expanded. Many of the program changes were intended to encourage low income women to work.During this same time period there were unprecedented increases in the employment and hours of single mothers, particularly those with young children. In this paper, we first document these large changes in policies and employment. We then examine if the policy changes are the reason for the large increases in single mothers' labor supply. We find evidence that a large share of the increase in work by single mothers can be attributed to the EITC, with smaller shares for welfare benefit reductions, welfare waivers, changes in training programs, and child care expansions. We also find that most of these policies increased hours worked. Our results indicate that financial incentives through the tax and welfare systems have substantial effects on single mothers' labor supply decisions.The only paper which directly examines how the EITC affects single mothers' labor supply is Eissa and Liebman (1996), which examines the effect of the Tax Reform Act of 1986. 1 In his discussion of the labor supply effects of Medicaid, Moffitt (1992) argues that there has been too little work to draw reliable conclusions. 2 Moffitt describes the labor supply effect of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) as being subject to considerable uncertainty and notes that the broader labor supply literature has examined single mothers "only rarely." 3 Dickert, Houser, and Scholz (1995) argue that this literature provides little guidance as to how the EITC will affect labor market participation, and that this omission is especially important because past work indicates that most of the labor supply response is in the work decision rather than the hours decision. Furthermore, there is no work that we are aware of that assesses the overall effect of recent changes in training and child care programs. 4 The work on the effects of welfare waivers has examined program caseloads rather than employment, and has reached conflicting results. 5Second, these changes in policies provide a plausible source of exogenous variation with which to identify the effects of tax and welfare parameters on labor supply. The magnitudes of these effects are key determinants of the gains or losses from changes in income redistribution and social insurance policies. The variation in the after-tax and transfer return to work that we use here to identify labor 3 supply elasticities is due to large changes in federal and state laws. These laws applied to some individuals and not to others, or had differential effects on the incentives of different people. This source of variation is likely to be unrelated to underlying differences across individuals in their desire to work, a...

A neural network (NN) is a parameterised function that can be tuned via gradient descent to approximate a labelled collection of data with high precision. A Gaussian process (GP), on the other hand, is a probabilistic model that defines a distribution over possible functions, and is updated in light of data via the rules of probabilistic inference. GPs are probabilistic, data-efficient and flexible, however they are also computationally intensive and thus limited in their applicability. We introduce a class of neural latent variable models which we call Neural Processes (NPs), combining the best of both worlds. Like GPs, NPs define distributions over functions, are capable of rapid adaptation to new observations, and can estimate the uncertainty in their predictions. Like NNs, NPs are computationally efficient during training and evaluation but also learn to adapt their priors to data. We demonstrate the performance of NPs on a range of learning tasks, including regression and optimisation, and compare and contrast with related models in the literature.

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During 1984During -1996, welfare and tax policy were changed to encourage work by single mothers. The Earned Income Tax Credit was expanded, welfare benefits were cut, welfare time limits were added, and welfare cases were terminated. Medicaid for the working poor was expanded, as were training programs and child care. During this same time period there were unprecedented increases in the employment and hours of single mothers. We show that a large share of the increase in work by single mothers can be attributed to the EITC and other tax changes, with smaller shares for welfare benefit cuts, welfare waivers, training programs and child care programs.

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This paper presents empirical evidence of the relationship between faculty entrepreneurial activity-quantified in terms of the propensity of U.S. university faculty to work directly with industry on research activities that lead to patents-and human capital, measured in terms of faculty tenure and age. Patenting reflects a unique dimension of faculty entrepreneurship, namely, collaborative activity that results in joint intellectual property. We find that faculty with tenure are more likely to engage in such activity, thus providing suggestive evidence of an externality associated with permanent employment. We also find that older faculty are more likely to engage with industry, to a point, holding tenure constant. Tenure and age proxy, respectively, what we call the "accumulated advantage" of faculty and their absorptive capacity. Because faculty patenting with industry involved both parties, our findings reflect that such faculty experience and expertise are important to industry to enter into a patenting relationship. Finally, we find that male faculty are more likely to patent with industry than female faculty.

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