Strombolian eruptions are among the most common subaerial styles of explosive volcanism worldwide. Distinctive features of each volcano lead to a correspondingly wide range of variations of magnitude and erupted products, but most papers focus on a single type of event at a single volcano. Here, in order to emphasize the common features underlying this diversity of styles, we scrutinize a database from 35 different erupting vents, including 21 thermal infrared videos from Stromboli (Italy), Etna (Italy), Yasur (Vanuatu), and Batu Tara (Indonesia), from puffing, through rapid explosions to normal explosions, with variable ejection parameters and relative abundance of gas, ash, and bombs. Using field observations and high‐speed thermal infrared videos processed by a new algorithm, we identify the distinguishing characteristics of each type of activity and how they may relate and interact. In particular, we record that ash‐poor normal explosions may be preceded and followed by the onset or the increase of the puffing activity, while ash‐rich explosions are emergent, i.e., with inflation of the free surface followed directly by emission of increasingly large gas pockets. Overall, we see that all Strombolian activities form a continuum arising from a common mechanism and are modulated by the combination of two well‐established controls: (1) the length of the bursting gas pocket with respect to the vent diameter and (2) the presence and thickness of a high‐viscosity layer in the uppermost part of the volcanic conduit.

Since its last magmatic eruption in 1530 AD, La Soufrière andesitic volcano in Guadeloupe has displayed intense hydrothermal activity and six phreatic eruptive crises. Here we report on the first direct quantification of gas plume emissions from its summit vents, which gradually intensified during the past 20 years. Gas fluxes were determined in March 2006 and March 2012 by measuring the horizontal and vertical distributions of volcanic gas concentrations in the air-diluted plume and scaling to the speed of plume transport. Fluxes in 2006 combine realtime measurements of volcanic H 2 S concentrations and plume parameters with the composition of the hot (108.5°C) fumarolic fluid at exit. Fluxes in 2012 result from MultiGAS analysis of H 2 S, H 2 O, CO 2 , SO 2 and H 2 concentrations, combined with thermal imaging of the plume geometry and dynamics. Measurements were not only focused on the most active South crater (SC) vent, but also targeted Tarissan crater and other reactivating vents. We first demonstrate that all vents are fed by a common H 2 O-rich (97-98 mol%) fluid end-member, emitted almost unmodified at SC but affected by secondary shallow alterations at other vents. Daily fluxes in 2012 averaged 200 tons of H 2 O, 15 tons of CO 2 ,~4 tons of H 2 S and 1 ton of HCl, increased by a factor~3 compared to 2006. Even though modest, such fluxes make La Soufrière the second most important volcanic gas emitter in the Lesser Antilles arc, after Soufriere Hills of Montserrat. Taking account of other hydrothermal manifestations (hot springs and diffuse soil degassing), the summit fumarolic activity is shown to contribute most of the bulk volatile and heat budget of the volcano. The hydrothermal heat output (8 MW) exceeds by orders of magnitude the contemporaneous seismic energy release. Isotopic evidences support that La Soufrière hydrothermal emissions are sustained by a variable but continuous heat and gas supply from a magma reservoir confined at 6-7 km depth. By using petro-geochemical data for La Soufrière magma(s) and their dissolved volatile content, and assuming a magmatic derivation of sulfur, we estimate that the volcanic gas fluxes measured in 2012 could result from the underground release of magmatic gas exsolved from~1400 m 3 d −1 of basaltic melt feeding the system at depth. We recommend that fumarolic gas flux at La Soufrière becomes regularly measured in the future in order to carefully monitor the temporal evolution of that magmatic supply.

A new image processing technique-Pyroclast Tracking Velocimetry-was used to analyze a set of 30 high-speed videos of Strombolian explosions from different vents at Stromboli (Italy) and Yasur (Vanuatu) volcanoes. The studied explosions invariably appear to result from the concatenation of up to a hundred individual pyroclast ejection pulses. All these pulses share a common evolution over time, including (1) a non-linear decrease of the pyroclast ejection velocity, (2) an increasing spread of ejection angle, and (3) an increasing size of the ejected pyroclasts. These features reflect the dynamic burst of short-lived gas pockets, in which the rupture area enlarges while pressure differential decreases. We estimated depth of pyroclast release to be approximately 1 and 8 m below the surface at Stromboli and Yasur, respectively. In addition, explosions featuring more frequent pulses also have higher average ejection velocities and larger total masses of pyroclasts. These explosions release a larger overall amount of energy stored in the pressurized gas by a combination of more frequent and stronger ejection pulses. In this context, the associated kinetic energy per explosion, ranging 10 3 -10 9 J appears to be a good proxy for the explosion magnitude. Differences in the pulse-defining parameters among the different vents suggest that this general process is modulated by geometrical factors in the shallow conduit, as well as magma-specific rheology. Indeed, the more viscous melt of Yasur, compared to Stromboli, is associated with larger vents producing fewer pulses but larger pyroclasts.

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Volcanic lightning-a near ubiquitous feature of explosive volcanic eruptions-possesses great potential for the analysis of volcanic plume dynamics. To date, the lack of quantitative knowledge on the relationships between plume characteristics hinders efficient data analysis and application of the resulting parameterizations. We use a shock-tube apparatus for rapid decompression experiments to produce particleladen jets. We have systematically and independently varied the water content (0-27 wt%) and the temperature (25-320°C) of the particle-gas mixture. The addition of a few weight percent of water is sufficient to reduce the observed electrification by an order of magnitude. With increasing temperature, a larger number of smaller discharges are observed, with the overall amount of electrification staying similar. Changes in jet dynamics are proposed as the cause of the temperature-dependence, while multiple factors (including the higher conductivity of wet ash) can be seen responsible for the decreased electrification in wet experiments.Plain Language Summary Volcanic explosive eruptions are accompanied by lightning strikes generated from the volcanic dust cloud. Here we have experimentally studied the effects of atmospheric water and plume temperature on the frequency and intensity of the lightning strikes. The results will feed a model for the use of volcanic lightning strikes to estimate plume contents and intensity. Key Points:• Natural observations on the influence of temperature and water content on volcanic lightning have been modelled in laboratory experiments. • The magnitude of electrification and discharging in plumes decreases significantly with added water. • At higher temperatures a decrease in magnitude of individual discharges is observed, while the total neutralized charge stays similar.

High-speed imaging of explosive eruptions at Stromboli (Italy), Fuego (Guatemala), and Yasur (Vanuatu) volcanoes allowed visualization of pressure waves from seconds-long explosions. From the explosion jets, waves radiate with variable geometry, timing, and apparent direction and velocity. Both the explosion jets and their wave fields are replicated well by numerical simulations of supersonic jets impulsively released from a pressurized vessel. The scaled acoustic signal from one explosion at Stromboli displays a frequency pattern with an excellent match to those from the simulated jets. We conclude that both the observed waves and the audible sound from the explosions are jet noise, i.e., the typical acoustic field radiating from high-velocity jets. Volcanic jet noise was previously quantified only in the infrasonic emissions from large, sub-Plinian to Plinian eruptions. Our combined approach allows us to define the spatial and temporal evolution of audible jet noise from supersonic jets in small-scale volcanic eruptions.

International audienceMonitoring the geothermal flux of a dormant volcano is necessary both for hazard assessment and for studying hydrothermal systems. Heat from a magma body located at depth is transported by steam to the surface, where it is expelled in fumaroles if the heat flow exceeds 500 W/m2. If the heat flow is lower than 500 W/m2, steam mainly condensates in the soil close to surface and produces a thermal anomaly detectable at the surface. In this study, we propose a method to quantify low heat fluxes from temperature anomalies measured at the surface by a thermal infrared camera. Once corrected from the atmospheric and surface effects, thermal infrared images are used to compute (1) the excess of radiative flux, (2) the excess of sensible flux and (3) the steam flux from the soil to the atmosphere. These calculations require measurements of atmospheric parameters (temperature, wind velocity and humidity) and estimations of surface parameters (roughness and emissivity). This method has been tested on a low-flux fumarolic zone of the Soufrière volcano (Guadeloupe Island -- Lesser Antilles), and compared to a flux estimation realized from the thermal gradient measurements into the soil. The two methods show a good agreement and a similar precision (267 ± 46 W/m2 for the thermal infrared method, and 275 ± 50 W/m2 for the vertical temperature gradient method), if surface roughness is well calibrated

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