A viable neuropsychology of schizophrenia requires, first, that signs and symptoms be understood in terms of underlying psychological processes and, second, that these underlying processes be related to brain systems. We propose that the negative signs of schizophrenia reflect a defect in the initiation of spontaneous action, while the positive symptoms reflect a defect in the internal monitoring of action. The spontaneous initiation of action depends upon brain systems linking the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia. Internal monitoring, carried out in the hippocampus, of spontaneous action, depends upon links between the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus via the parahippocampal cortex and the cingulate cortex.

probably been the acceptability of myalgic encephalomyelitis as a diagnosis. Fatigue scores in our study were strongly correlated with depression scores, and a recent prospective study in general practice has confirmed this relation. 18 Depression as a cause of fibromyalgia is a much debated issue. Persistent pain is a depressing experience. Our finding that the depression score rises with tender point count irrespective of pain status, however, suggests that depression and fatigue may play a part in the genesis of tender points. This fits with the theory ofthe central modulation ofpain experience. Design-Subjects in a prospectively followed up cohort (the national child development study) who had been admitted as adults to psychiatric hospitals were compared with the rest ofthe cohort on ratings of social behaviour made by teachers at the ages of 7 and 11 years. CONCLUSIONSSubjects-40 adult patients with schizophrenic illnesses, 35 with affective psychoses, and 79 with neurotic illness who had been admitted for psychiatric reasons by the age of 28. 1914 randomly selected members of the cohort who had never been admitted for psychiatric treatment.Main outcome measures-Overall scores and scores for overreaction (externalising behaviour) and underreaction (internalising behaviour) with the Bristol social adjustment guide at ages 7 and 11.Results-At the age of 7 children. who developed schizophrenia were rated by their teachers as manifesting more social maladjustment than. controls (overall score 4 3' (SD 24) Av 3-1 (2*0; P

No abstract

Those who as adults will be admitted to a psychiatric ward with a psychotic illness can be distinguished (on the basis of group differences) from others by their behaviour and academic performance at the ages of 7 and 11 years. Pre-schizophrenic boys are anxious and hostile towards adults and peers at the age of 7 years and show poor concentration. By age 11 years these boys are also rated as depressed, and pre-schizophrenic girls as depressed and withdrawn. Pre-affective psychotic boys show minor changes (for example an increase in hostility and restlessness) at age 7 years, although these features are not obvious at age 11 years. Abnormalities that in some respects resemble those in pre-schizophrenic boys are present at age 11 years in a group of females who will be admitted to psychiatric units with non-psychotic diagnoses by the age of 28 years. Academic impairments (including speech and reading difficulties) at ages 7, 11 and 16 years are more severe in pre-schizophrenics than in the other groups. Schizophrenics-to-be are slow to develop continence and show poor coordination and vision at age 7 years, and are rated clumsy at age 16 years. Psychosis reflects a disturbance of aspects of central nervous system function that are time-dependent and in certain respects gender specific. It is argued that the psychoses represent extremes of variation in a gene (or genes) that differs between sexes and controls the timing of development of the two cerebral hemispheres.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

???The original publication is available at www.springerlink.com???. Copyright Springer DOI: 10.1007/BF00309165 [Full text of this article is not available in the UHRA]Two-choice tactile RTs are no faster than 8-choice tasks, implying the existence of a direct route. However, simple tactile RTs are much faster than choice tactile RTs (Leonard, 1959). In Experiment I we show that this is not due to subjects anticipating the stimulus in simple tactile RT tasks. Increasing probability of stimulus occurrence at a particular time led to equally decreased tactile RTs for simple and choice tasks. We suggest that an alternative route is available for simple RTs which is faster than the direct route available for choice tactile RTs. This route is faster because (a) the response can be specified in advance, and (b) the stimulus does not need to be identified. The subject needs merely to register that it has occurred. In Experiment II we show that simple RTs to a visual stimulus are decreased by a simultaneous uninformative tactile stimulus even when this is to the wrong finger. This confirms that exact stimulus identification is not necessary in the fast route. In Experiment III we show that a secondary task slows down simple tactile RTs to the same level as choice tactile RTs while the latter are hardly affected. This suggests that focussed attention is not needed for the direct route, but it is needed for the fast route. We propose that a useful distinction can be made between action largely controlled by external stimuli (the direct route) and action largely controlled by internal intentions of will (the fast route)

No abstract

SynopsisOn each of a sequence of trials subjects had to guess whether a cross would appear on the left or the right side of a computer screen. The sequence of cross positions was random. Normal controls, manic-depressive patients and patients with senile dementia produced relatively random sequences of responses, as did acute schizophrenic patients with positive symptoms. Acute schizophrenic patients with negative symptoms and chronic patients produced more stereotyped sequences with many response alternations (LRLR). Chronic schizophrenic patients with negative symptoms and intellectual deterioration (defect state) produced very stereotyped sequences with many preservations (LLLL). This severe restriction of response sequences is similar to that shown by animals after treatment with amphetamine. It is suggested that it is due to an impairment of a higher order control process which normally inhibits the repetition of sequences of behaviour when these have proved inappropriate.

SynopsisOn the basis of previous findings, we used meta-analyses to consider whether births to parents with schizophrenia have an increased risk of obstetric complications. Meta-analyses were based on published studies satisfying the following selection criteria. The schizophrenic diagnosis could apply to either parent: parents with non-schizophrenic psychoses were not included: only normal controls were accepted. In all, 14 studies provided effect sizes or data from which these could be derived. Studies were identified by data searches through MEDLINE, PSYCLIT and through references of papers relating to the subject. Births to individuals with schizophrenia incur an increased risk of pregnancy and birth complications, low birthweight and poor neonatal condition. However, in each case the effect size is small (mean r = 0·155; 95% CI = 0·057). The risk is greater for mothers with schizophrenia and is not confined to mothers with onset pre-delivery or to the births of the children who become schizophrenic themselves.