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The FAO global survey of pesticide sensitivity of stored grain pests in 1972–73 showed an overall incidence of phosphine resistance of 9.7% in insect strains from 82 countries, especially in Tribolium spp. and Rhyzopertha dominica. The levels of resistance increased under laboratory selection. Generally, eggs and pupae were found to be more tolerant, and fumigation doses have to be designed with these stages in mind. With increasing worldwide use of phosphine, resistance has become more frequent and occurs at a higher level and in other species (Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis). Studies of fumigation under different conditions in Bangladesh showed that common procedures, without use of sheets, led to chronic underdosing, creating ideal conditions for the selection of resistant strains. Such strains are very likely to be introduced into the EPPO region and established there. While inspection and control procedures in ports could limit this risk, these are costly and impractical. The problem is best tackled at source, by supporting projects aimed at improving the conditions under which grain is stored and fumigated in developing countries.

Possible advantages of foliar application of nutrients–in efficiency, speed, cheapness, and effect on crop quality–-have attracted attention for many years. Progress has been most rapid for fruit and plantation crops, especially in the last decade; but the promise of foliar application of nutrients and the risk of injury to the foliage may be appraised only by the study of individual crops, as is done in the present review.

The impact of the sanctions regime imposed on Iraq by the member states of the United Nations Security Council since 1990 has many facets. The horrifying human face of malnutrition and death has, quite rightly, been given greatest media and other exposure, but other forms of damage are also severely felt. This article intends briefly to explore some aspects of the impact in an attempt to show a somewhat wider picture of the sanctions catastrophe. While the catastrophe is a thing of the present, it has potentially lasting consequences for the future, not only for the Iraqi people, but for the peace and well-being of the Arab region and the world as a whole.