The performance of polymer-fullerene bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells is strongly dependent on the vertical distribution of the donor and acceptor regions within the BHJ layer. In this work, we investigate in detail the effect of the hole transport layer (HTL) physical properties and the thermal annealing on the BHJ morphology and the solar cell performance. For this purpose, we have prepared solar cells with four distinct formulations of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) buffer layers. The samples were subjected to thermal annealing, applied either before (pre-annealing) or after (post-annealing) the cathode metal deposition. The effect of the HTL and the annealing process on the BHJ ingredient distribution -namely, poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and [6,6]-phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) -has been studied by spectroscopic ellipsometry and atomic force microscopy. The results revealed P3HT segregation at the top region of the films, which had a detrimental effect on all pre-annealed devices, whereas PCBM was found to accumulate at the bottom interface. This demixing process depends on the PEDOT:PSS surface energy; the more hydrophilic the surface the more profound is the vertical phase separation within the BHJ. At the same time those samples suffer from high recombination losses as evident from the analysis of the J-V measurements obtained in the dark. Our results underline the significant effect of the HTL-active and active-ETL (electron transport layer) interfacial composition that should be taken into account during the optimization of all polymer-fullerene solar cells.
This work focuses on the evaluation of commercially available rapid methods for determining frying oil quality. Five rapid methods differing in principle were selected: FOM320 (Ebro), PCT120 (3M), LRSM (3M), Fritest (Merck) and Viscofrit (Viscofrit). The performance of the methods was examined by use of 184 oil samples produced by controlled frying experiments. Twelve series of frying experiments (45 batches each) were performed in which the oil type (palm, sunflower and olive) and the food type (potatoes, zucchini and minced beef meat) varied. Control thermal oxidation experiments with the same oil types were also performed. Results of the rapid methods were compared to results of analytical methods determining legislation criteria. Namely, the total polar compounds and total polymer compounds were determined using High Pressure Size Exclusion Chromatography with and without prior separation of the polar fraction. Furthermore, determination of the free fatty acid concentration, acidity, viscosity and level of oxidation of the oils using UV spectroscopy were carried out. Principal component analysis and linear regression analysis were used in order to assess the obtained results. Comparison of the results of the rapid methods with the analytical ones showed differences in most examined cases. For many of the examined rapid methods the agreement of the results versus those of analytical methods depended on the food‐oil combination used in the frying experiments.
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