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Dystrophinopathies are due to mutations in the dystrophin gene on chromosome Xp21.1 and comprise the allelic entities Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) and X-linked dilative cardiomyopathy (XLDCM). In all three entities, the heart is affected to various degrees, depending on the stage of the disease and the type of the mutation (cardiac involvement, CI). The pathoanatomic evidence of CI in dystrophinopathies is the replacement of myocardium by connective tissue or fat. In DMD/BMD, the left ventricular posterobasal and lateral walls are most extensively affected, sparing the right ventricle and the atrium. Degree and dynamics of CI vary among the three entities. In DMD/BMD, CI usually remains subclinical in the early stages of the disease. Typical initial manifestations of CI in DMD/BMD are sinus tachycardia, tall R1 in V1, prominent Q in I, aVL, V6 or in II, III, and aVF, increased QT dispersion and possibly autonomic dysfunction. Initially, echocardiography is normal or shows regional wall motion abnormalities in areas of fibrosis. With spreading of fibrosis, left ventricular dysfunction and ventricular arrhythmias additionally occur. In the final stages of the disease, systolic function may lead to heart failure and sudden death. Subclinical or clinical CI is present in about 90% of the DMD/BMD patients but is the cause of death in only 20% of the DMD and 50% of the BMD patients. XLDCM is a rapidly progressive, almost exclusively myocardial disorder, starting in teenage males as heart failure due to dilative cardiomyopathy (CMP), leading to death from intractable heart failure within 1–2 years after diagnosis. Therapy of arrhythmias and CMP in all three disorders follows the established cardiological recommendations. Due to its protective effect, ACE inhibitors are recommended already at the early stages of the disease. β-Blockers may be an additional option if indicated.

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Left ventricular hypertrabeculation (LVHT) or noncompaction is a myocardial abnormality of unknown aetiology, frequently associated with monogenic disorders, particularly neuromuscular disorders, or with chromosomal defects. LVHT is diagnosed usually by echocardiography by the presence of a bilayered myocardium consisting of a thick, spongy, noncompacted endocardial layer and a thin, compacted, epicardial layer. The pathogenesis of LVHT is unsolved, and the diagnostic criteria, prognosis, and optimal treatment of patients with LVHT are under debate. LVHT is categorized as distinct primary genetic cardiomyopathy by the AHA and as unclassified cardiomyopathy by the ESC. LVHT is usually asymptomatic, but can be complicated by heart failure, thromboembolism, or ventricular arrhythmias, including sudden cardiac death. Mortality of patients with LVHT ranges from 5% to 47%. Anticoagulation is indicated if atrial fibrillation, severe heart failure, previous embolism, or intracardiac thrombus formation are present. In patients with LVHT with late gadolinium enhancement, an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator might be considered if systolic dysfunction, a family history of sudden cardiac death, nonsustained ventricular tachycardia, or previous syncope is additionally present. In this Review, we discuss the current findings on the aetiology and pathophysiology of LVHT, and provide an overview of the diagnosis, available treatment, and prognosis of this cardiomyopathy.

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Stroke in AF is associated with a poor prognosis, an increased rate of medical and neurological complications and a higher in-hospital mortality than in no-AF.

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Number of words (abstract): 0 Number of words (body): 786 Number of references: 15 Number of tables: 0 Number of figures: 0