Optical modulators encode electrical signals to the optical domain and thus constitute a key element in high-capacity communication links 1,2 . Ideally, they should feature operation at the highest speed with the least power consumption on the smallest footprint, and at low cost 3 . Unfortunately, current technologies fall short of these criteria 4 . Recently, plasmonics has emerged as a solution offering compact and fast devices 5-7 . Yet, practical implementations have turned out to be rather elusive.Here, we introduce a 70 GHz all-plasmonic Mach-Zehnder modulator that fits into a silicon waveguide of 10 μm length. This dramatic reduction in size by more than two orders of magnitude compared with photonic Mach-Zehnder modulators results in a low energy consumption of 25 fJ per bit up to the highest speeds. The technology suggests a cheap co-integration with electronics.Mach-Zehnder modulators (MZMs) are the most versatile electro-optical converters in high-end communication systems. MZMs are unique, as they can be used to encode multiple bits within one symbol with the highest quality. They are thus instrumental in increasing the capacity of modern communication links 1 . Until now, MZMs have mostly been based on the lithium niobate material system, which requires footprints on the order of cm 2 . Recently, more compact silicon-based modulators have emerged. These devices have already shown operation at bandwidths up to 55 GHz (ref. 8), they are cost-effective, and they feature lengths on the order of hundreds of micrometres to millimetres 2,3,8-12 . Yet, complementary metal-oxide semiconductor electronics (CMOS) house hundreds of transistors on a single μm 2 , making a co-integration of today's silicon MZMs with CMOS electronics impractical 4 . In pursuit of more compact silicon modulators, various approaches have been demonstrated, such as resonant silicon ring modulators 13,14 or germanium-based electro-absorption modulators 15,16 . However, encoding advanced modulation formats is challenging 17 , and high-capacity transmission has, so far, only been achieved with MZMs 2,12 . Instead, plasmonics has drawn significant interest as an alternative solution 6,7 . In plasmonics, optical signals are converted to surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) propagating at metal-dielectric interfaces, where they can be confined below the diffraction limit of optics 18 . This means that plasmonic devices require only a few µm 2 of footprint 19,20 . With such reduced dimensions, the technology is much closer to bridging the size gap with respect to CMOS electronics. Furthermore, there are various theoretical studies indicating that plasmonic MZMs should offer hundreds of gigahertz of bandwidth 5,21 . To date, however, there is very little experimental evidence to support this claim. Recently, a plasmonic phase modulator demonstrated operation at 40 Gbit s −1 (ref. 22). One could now envision integrating such plasmonic phase modulators into a silicon waveguide MZM configuration. However, by combining plasmonics and silicon photoni...

Plasmonics provides a possible route to overcome both the speed limitations of electronics and the critical dimensions of photonics. We present an all-plasmonic 116-gigabits per second electro-optical modulator in which all the elements-the vertical grating couplers, splitters, polarization rotators, and active section with phase shifters-are included in a single metal layer. The device can be realized on any smooth substrate surface and operates with low energy consumption. Our results show that plasmonics is indeed a viable path to an ultracompact, highest-speed, and low-cost technology that might find many applications in a wide range of fields of sensing and communications because it is compatible with and can be placed on a wide variety of materials.

The performance of highly nonlinear organic electro-optic (EO) materials incorporated into nanoscale slots is examined. It is shown that EO coefficients as large as 190 pm/V can be obtained in 150 nm wide plasmonic slot waveguides but that the coefficients decrease for narrower slots. Possible mechanism that lead to such a decrease are discussed. Monte-Carlo computer simulations are performed, confirming that chromophore-surface interactions are one important factor influencing the EO coefficient in narrow plasmonic slots. These highly nonlinear materials are of particular interest for applications in optical modulators. However, in modulators the key parameters are the voltage-length product U_πL and the insertion loss rather than the linear EO coefficients. We show record-low voltage-length products of 70 Vµm and 50 Vµm for slot widths in the order of 50 nm for the materials JRD1 and DLD164, respectively. This is because the nonlinear interaction is enhanced in narrow slot and thereby compensates for the reduced EO coefficient. Likewise, it is found that lowest insertion losses are observed for slot widths in the range 60 to 100 nm.

Broadband electro-optic intensity modulators are essential to convert electrical signals to the optical domain. The growing interest in THz wireless applications demands modulators with frequency responses to the sub-THz range, high power handling and very low nonlinear distortions, simultaneously. However, a modulator with all those characteristics has not been demonstrated to date.Here we experimentally demonstrate that plasmonic modulators do not trade off any performance parameter, featuringat the same timea short length of 10s of micrometers, record-high flat frequency response beyond 500 GHz, high power handling and high linearity, and we use them to create a sub-THz radio-over-fiber analog optical link. These devices have the potential to become a new tool in the general field of microwave photonics, making the sub-THz range accessible to e.g. 5G wireless communications, antenna remoting, IoT, sensing, and more.This document provides supporting information to "500 GHz plasmonic Mach-Zehnder modulator enabling sub-THz microwave photonics". We describe details on the experimental setups employed to measure the frequency response of the modulator, over two different frequency ranges (from 20 to 70 GHz and from 200 to 500 GHz), and the procedure used to extract the modulator response. We describe the setup and procedure employed to measure the third-order intermodulation distortions via two-tone tests. Finally, we report details on the radio-over-fiber link experiment in the 220-325 GHz window.

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Coherent optical communications provides the largest data transmission capacity with the highest spectral efficiency and therefore has a remarkable potential to satisfy today’s ever-growing bandwidth demands. It relies on so-called in-phase/quadrature (IQ) electro-optic modulators that encode information on both the amplitude and the phase of light. Ideally, such IQ modulators should offer energy-efficient operation and a most compact footprint, which would allow high-density integration and high spatial parallelism. Here, we present compact IQ modulators with an active section occupying a footprint of 4 × 25 µm × 3 µm, fabricated on the silicon platform and operated with sub-1-V driving electronics. The devices exhibit low electrical energy consumptions of only 0.07 fJ bit −1 at 50 Gbit s −1 , 0.3 fJ bit −1 at 200 Gbit s −1 , and 2 fJ bit −1 at 400 Gbit s −1 . Such IQ modulators may pave the way for application of IQ modulators in long-haul and short-haul communications alike.

We demonstrate a plasmonic Mach-Zehnder (MZ) modulator with a flat frequency response exceeding 170 GHz. The modulator comprises two phase modulators exploiting the Pockels effect of an organic electro-optic material in plasmonic slot waveguides. We further show modulation at 100 GBd NRZ and 60 GBd PAM-4. The electrical drive signals were generated using a 100 GSa/s digital to analog converter (DAC). The high-speed and small-scale devices are relevant for next-generation optical interconnects.

In order to address the challenge of increasing data rates, next generation optical communication networks will require the co-integration of electronics and photonics. Heterogeneous integration of these technologies has shown promise, but will eventually become bandwidth limited. Faster monolithic approaches will, therefore, be needed, but monolithic approaches using complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) electronics and silicon photonics are typically limited by their underlying electronic or photonic technologies. Here, we report a monolithically integrated electro-optical transmitter that can achieve symbol rates beyond 100 GBd. Our approach combines advanced bipolar CMOS with silicon plasmonics, and addresses key challenges in monolithic integration through the co-design of the electronic and plasmonic layers, including thermal design, packaging, and a nonlinear organic electro-optic material. To illustrate the potential of our technology, we develop two modulator conceptsan ultra-compact plasmonic modulator and, alternatively, a silicon-plasmonic modulator with photonic routing -both directly processed onto the bipolar CMOS electronics.