Pathways from pregnancy smoking to offspring behaviour are complex and multi-determined. These findings suggest that both exposure and maternal characteristics associated with pregnancy smoking status contribute to offspring behavioural patterns. Research that characterises differences between quitters and persistent smokers and examines the role of these differences in prediction of early vulnerabilities and problems in adaptation over time will be important for elucidating these pathways.

Children endure painful experiences while in hospital, often without understanding why. This study aimed to assess whether the use of a protocol for assessing, preparing and distracting children during procedures such as cannulation would decrease levels of pain and distress reported by children, parents and nurses. Pain thermometers and 'scary faces' were used as tools to assess pain and anxiety levels of 82 children. The results were ambiguous and inconsistent. However, nurses have a responsibility to reduce children's pain and anxiety as much as possible and distraction is one way of doing this.

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This essay offers a twofold exploration of the art of epitaph in Charles Dickens's writing. First, it considers the memorial inscriptions that Dickens wrote for friends and family members in light of contemporary debates about epitaph's proper form and function, nuancing understanding of the author's epitaphic aesthetic. Second, it examines the creative potential of epitaph in Dickens's fiction, by tracing the migration of epitaphic text from actual to fictional inscriptions and between paper and stone. In doing so, it argues that for Dickens the art of epitaph is fundamentally carnivalesque, as a supposedly succinct form of death writing generates extended texts and paratexts, new stories, and fresh associations.

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