Two meta-analyses were conducted to determine the extent to which pressure from the mass media to conform to the muscular "ideal" male body affects men's self-images (i.e., body satisfaction, body esteem, and self-esteem). A total of 25 studies contributing 93 effect sizes were included in two meta-analyses, which revealed that pressure from the mass media was significantly related to men feeling worse about their own bodies. The effect size from the meta-analysis of the correlational studies (Study 1) was significantly negative, d =-0.19, p < .001. The effect size from the meta-analysis of the experimental studies (Study 2) was also significantly negative, d =-0.22, p < .0001. Results from both Study 1 and Study 2 suggest that as men felt pressure from the mass media (in correlational and experimental designs) they felt worse about their bodies. Results showed that pressure from the mass media was related to body satisfaction, body esteem, self-esteem, psychological disorders (e.g., depression), and behavioral outcomes (e.g., excessive exercising). "It's [a muscular ad] so obviously aimed at the American culture. The American way of thinking-Everything BIG." (Elliot & Elliot, 2005, p. 13) Contemporary American culture heavily emphasizes the human body and its appearance. The mass media often uses sexual images and scantily clad models to sell their products. For example, beer commercials use barely dressed women to sell their beer, while gym equipment commercials sell their products by displaying muscular 279 279

Cyberbullying frequency is related to a wide range of negative outcomes. Little research has attempted to delineate the long-term predictors and mechanisms to predict cyberbullying. Study 1 (N ϭ 493) used a correlational study that tested our long-term model of cyberbullying. This model predicted that cyberbullying is a function of positive attitudes toward cyberbullying, which are formed by attitudes toward strength and anonymity that exists in aggressing against others in the mediated world. Results showed strong support for our model. Study 2 (N ϭ 181) used a longitudinal design to further test our model. Participants completed measures of cyberbullying and cyber-victimization at Wave 1, and again two months later. Positive attitudes toward cyberbullying and reinforcement of cyberbullying tactics were also assessed at Wave 2. Results showed that positive attitudes and reinforcement mediated the stability in cyberbullying. Future research and implications are discussed.

The current research used meta-analysis to determine whether (a) sex differences emerged in cyber-bullying frequency, (b) if age moderated any sex effect, and (c) if any additional moderators (e.g., publication year and status, country and continent of data collection) influenced the sex effect. Theoretically, if cyber-bullying is considered a form of traditional bullying and aggression, males are likely to cyber-bully more than females. Conversely, if cyber-bullying is considered relational/indirect aggression, females will be slightly more likely to cyber-bully than males. Results from 122 effect size estimates showed that males were slightly more likely to cyber-bully than females; however, age moderated the overall effect. Specifically, females were more likely to report cyber-bullying during early to mid-adolescence than males, while males showed higher levels of cyber-bullying during later adolescence than females. Publication status and year and continent and country of data collection also moderated the overall effect.

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This literature review focuses on the confirmed, suspected, and speculative effects of violent and non-violent video game exposure on negative and positive outcomes. Negative outcomes include aggressive feelings, aggressive thoughts, aggressive behavior, physiological arousal, and desensitization, whereas positive outcomes include various types of learning. Multiple theories predict, and empirical findings reveal, that violent video game exposure is causally related to a host of negative outcomes and a few positive outcomes. Some non-violent video games have been causally related to some specific positive learning effects as well as certain types of visual cognition (e.g., spatial rotation abilities) and may be associated with some negative effects on executive control and attention disorders.

Anonymity has been considered one of the constructs that differentiate traditional bullying from cyberbullying; however, few published studies have actually tested how and why anonymity influences cyberbullying behavior longitudinally. We posit that aggressor-perceived anonymity predicts cyberbullying behavior and positive attitudes toward cyberbullying. Additionally, positive cyberbullying attitudes would mediate aggressor-perceived anonymity and cyberbullying behavior. The current study used a 4-wave longitudinal design over the course of one academic year on college-aged participants (N = 146 [at Wave 1]; average age = 19.21). Specifically, participants completed measures of anonymity, cyberbullying attitudes, and cyberbullying behavior 4 times approximately every 2 months. Results using path analysis showed (a) strong stability over time for the variables and (b) several mediated paths between Wave 1 anonymity and Waves 3 and 4 cyberbullying behaviors through Wave 2 cyberbullying attitudes. These results remained using both maximum likelihood estimation and bootstrapping techniques. Overall, the results showed that aggressor-perceived anonymity is an important risk factor for later cyberbullying behavior.

The current study tested the relation between culture and cyberbullying using a short-term longitudinal research design. College-aged participants from the United States (n = 293) and Japan (n = 722) completed several questionnaires at Wave 1 that measured cyberbullying frequency, cyberbullying reinforcement, positive attitudes toward cyberbullying, and interdependent selfconstrual. Approximately 2 months later, participants completed the cyberbullying frequency questionnaire again. Results showed higher levels of cyberbullying change for the U.S. sample compared with the Japanese sample. Follow-up analyses showed that cyberbullying reinforcement and interdependent self-construal moderated this effect. Specifically, cyberbullying change was the highest (showing an increase over time) for the U.S. sample when reinforcement was highest and when interdependent self-construal was the lowest. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Across six studies, we validated a new measure of helpful and hurtful behaviors, the Tangram Help/Hurt Task. Studies 1 to 3 provided cross-sectional correlational convergent and discriminant validity evidence for the Tangram Task using college-based and adult online samples. Study 4 revealed that previously validated empathy primes increase helpful behaviors on the Tangram Task. Studies 5 and 6 revealed that previously validated provocation manipulations increase hurtful behaviors on the Tangram Task. The effects of various experimental manipulations on the Tangram Task were similar to or larger than on other established indices of helpful and hurtful behaviors. In addition, motivation items in all studies indicate that tangram choices are indeed associated with the intent of helping and hurting. We discuss the advantages and limitations of the Tangram Help/Hurt Task relative to established measures of helpful and hurtful behaviors.