This article describes the development and validation of the Race-Related Stressor Scale (RRSS), a questionnaire that assesses exposure to race-related stressors in the military and war zone. Validated on a sample of 300 Asian American Vietnam veterans, the RRSS has high internal consistency and adequate temporal stability. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that exposure to race-related stressors accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and general psychiatric symptoms, over and above (by 20% and 19%, respectively) that accounted for by combat exposure and military rank. The RRSS appears to be a psychometrically sound measure of exposure to race-related stressors for this population. Race-related stressors as measured by the RRSS appear to contribute uniquely and substantially to PTSD symptoms and generalized psychiatric distress.

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The purpose of this survey was to examine the extent to which community psychology has committed itself to one of its original missions: to foster cultural relativity and diversity. Content analyses were conducted of all articles published in the American Journal of Community Psychology, Community Mental Health Journal, and the Journal of Community Psychology from the journals' inception through 1985. Of all articles published, 13% furthered the goals of cultural diversity, and 86% did not. Further breakdown revealed that 5.5% of the articles were on a single U.S. ethnic minority group, 5% compared an ethnic minority group(s) to Whites, 2% were on an international cultural group, and .5% compared two or more ethnic minority groups to each other. Compared to CMHJ, a higher proportion of articles published in AJCP and JCP were devoted to cultural diversity. Greater attention has been given to the study of Blacks and Hispanics/Puerto Ricans than to Asian Americans or Native Americans. For all journals combined, there was an overall increase in the proportion of articles devoted to cultural diversity and ethnicity over time. Still, 5% to 11% was considered short of the proportion of ethnic minorities in the United States (over 20%), leading the researchers to conclude that progress has been made, but more needs to be done.

The behavioral effects of high and low spatial density on normal children of ages 4 and 5 were examined. Sixty Ss were observed in groups of six in a free-play situation under both density conditions. Results showed that there was significantly less aggression and less social interaction in the high-density condition than in the low-dcnsity condition. Thcrc was a significant Density X Sex effect o n aggression and signficant main effects of sex on aggression, nurturance, number of interruptions, and number of children interacted with. Several complexities in researching and explaining the effects of density on behaviors are discussed.

This article presents a conceptual framework by which to understand race-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) for the Asian American Vietnam veteran. The framework draws from cognitive schema theory, social behaviorism, the notion of cumulative racism as trauma, and the assumption that bifurcation and negation of one's bicultural identity is injurious. Classifications of race-related stress or trauma that may be experienced by Asian American Vietnam veterans, with exemplifying clinical case material, are presented. These types of stressors include being mistaken for Vietnamese, verbal and physical assaults that are race-related, death and near-death experiences that are race-related, racial stigmatization, dissociation from one's Asian identity, and marginalization. As studies of combat trauma and sexual assault forced the psychological stresses attendant to war and sexist oppression into public consciousness, so this article addresses psychological stress and trauma attendant to racism.

Few studies have explored the relationship between exposure to adverse race-related events and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This study examined whether adverse race-related events can give rise to symptoms that meet the criteria for a PTSD diagnosis as specified in the DSM-IV. Three hundred Asian American Vietnam veterans were administered a Mississippi Scale and a questionnaire that assessed exposure to adverse race-related events in the military and associated PTSD symptoms. A subsample was administered the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. A majority of the participants (77%) reported exposure to adverse race-related events. Depending on the number of events to which they were exposed, between 13% and 36% reported symptoms consistent with meeting full criteria for PTSD. Mississippi Scale scores increased significantly as a function of frequency of exposure to adverse race-related events. These results converge with the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale findings to demonstrate that adverse race-related events can be traumatic and associated with PTSD. These findings support the construct and convergent validity of race-related PTSD.

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