Measuring exposure to racism: Development and validation of a Race-Related Stressor Scale (RRSS) for Asian American Vietnam veterans.

Abstract

This article describes the development and validation of the Race-Related Stressor Scale (RRSS), a questionnaire that assesses exposure to race-related stressors in the military and war zone. Validated on a sample of 300 Asian American Vietnam veterans, the RRSS has high internal consistency and adequate temporal stability. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that exposure to race-related stressors accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and general psychiatric symptoms, over and above (by 20% and 19%, respectively) that accounted for by combat exposure and military rank. The RRSS appears to be a psychometrically sound measure of exposure to race-related stressors for this population. Race-related stressors as measured by the RRSS appear to contribute uniquely and substantially to PTSD symptoms and generalized psychiatric distress.

Complex Trauma in Children and Adolescents

“…This acceptance may be perceived as more crucial to recovery than having the ability to say "no" or knowing how to counteract selfblaming thoughts or selfsoothe if feeling overwhelmed. Culturally sensitive approaches to trauma assessment have been developed for adults (e.g., Loo et al, 2001) and children (Ford et al, 2000). However, their appropriateness and psychometric reliability, validity, and utility in different ethnocultural groups, contexts, and communities have not been systematically evaluated.…”

“…Exposure to different types of trauma is variable across diverse ethnocultural backgrounds (i.e., exposure to war/genocide, family violence, community violence, child maltreatment). In addition, people of different cultural, national, linguistic, spiritual, and ethnic backgrounds define key trauma-related constructs in many different ways and with different expressions (e.g., flashbacks may be "visions," hyperarousal may be "attacque de nerves," dissociation may be spirit possession; Loo et al, 2001;Manson, 1996). The threshold for defining a PTSD reaction as "distressing" or as a problem warranting intervention differs not only across national and cultural groups, but also within subgroups (e.g., geographic regions of a country with different sub-cultures; different religious communities within the same geographic area).…”

“…While human beings share a common biological heritage, each person belongs to not one, but many ethnocultural groups and has a unique family and cultural heritage and genetic makeup-all of which interact to shape development and the experience of trauma. One must exercise caution applying categorical delineations of ethnocultural variables (e.g., refugee, urban residence, ethnic group, primary language, socioeconomic status, nationality) because doing so runs the risk of obscuring significant differences within these larger groups (Loo et al, 2001;Marsella, Friedman, Gerrity, & Scurfield, 1996). In studying adaptation to complex trauma in ethnocultural context, one must start with the broad categories and then delve deeper into the subcategories that reflect group, community, family, and individual differences.…”

“…The integration of these methods and rituals in prevention or treatment services for children who are survivors of complex trauma is warranted, but will require careful ethnographic study and collaboration between professionals in the traumatic stress field and varied cultural communities. Finally, prevention and treatment interventions also must consider the impact of racism and political/ethnic/class oppression as traumatic stressors (Loo et al, 2001). …”

20201218

“…The gathered data supported internal consistency reliability and construct validity of both instruments. Rippy and Newman (2008) developed the Perceived Religious Discrimination Scale through adaptation from the Race-Related Stressor Scale (Loo, Fairbank, Scurfield, Ruch, King, & Adams, 2001). This measure assesses stress related to religious discrimination among Muslim Americans.…”