Chromium is a non-essential and well-known toxic metal for microorganisms and plants. The widespread industrial use of this heavy metal has caused it to be considered as a serious environmental pollutant. Chromium exists in nature as two main species, the trivalent form, Cr(III), which is relatively innocuous, and the hexavalent form, Cr(VI), considered a more toxic species. At the intracellular level, however, Cr(III) seems to be responsible for most toxic effects of chromium. Cr(VI) is usually present as the oxyanion chromate. Inhibition of sulfate membrane transport and oxidative damage to biomolecules are associated with the toxic effects of chromate in bacteria. Several bacterial mechanisms of resistance to chromate have been reported. The best characterized mechanisms comprise efflux of chromate ions from the cell cytoplasm and reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III). Chromate efflux by the ChrA transporter has been established in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Cupriavidus metallidurans (formerly Alcaligenes eutrophus) and consists of an energy-dependent process driven by the membrane potential. The CHR protein family, which includes putative ChrA orthologs, currently contains about 135 sequences from all three domains of life. Chromate reduction is carried out by chromate reductases from diverse bacterial species generating Cr(III) that may be detoxified by other mechanisms. Most characterized enzymes belong to the widespread NAD(P)H-dependent flavoprotein family of reductases. Several examples of bacterial systems protecting from the oxidative stress caused by chromate have been described. Other mechanisms of bacterial resistance to chromate involve the expression of components of the machinery for repair of DNA damage, and systems related to the homeostasis of iron and sulfur.

Sulfur is an essential element for microorganisms and it can be obtained from varied compounds, sulfate being the preferred source. The first step for sulfate assimilation, sulfate uptake, has been studied in several bacterial species. This article reviews the properties of different bacterial (and archaeal) transporters for sulfate, molybdate, and related oxyanions. Sulfate uptake is carried out by sulfate permeases that belong to the SulT (CysPTWA), SulP, CysP/(PiT), and CysZ families. The oxyanions molybdate, tungstate, selenate and chromate are structurally related to sulfate. Molybdate is transported mainly by the high-affinity ModABC system and tungstate by the TupABC and WtpABC systems. CysPTWA, ModABC, TupABC, and WtpABC are homologous ATP-binding cassette (ABC)-type transporters with similar organization and properties. Uptake of selenate and chromate oxyanions occurs mainly through sulfate permeases.

Microorganisms and their hosts communicate with each other through an array of signals. The plant hormone auxin (indole-3-acetic acid; IAA) is central in many aspects of plant development. Cyclodipeptides and their derivative diketopiperazines (DKPs) constitute a large class of small molecules synthesized by microorganisms with diverse and noteworthy activities. Here, we present genetic, chemical, and plant-growth data showing that in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the LasI quorum-sensing (QS) system controls the production of three DKPs-namely, cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val), cyclo(L-Pro-L-Phe), and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr)-that are involved in plant growth promotion by this bacterium. Analysis of all three bacterial DKPs in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings provided detailed information indicative of an auxin-like activity, based on their efficacy at modulating root architecture, activation of auxin-regulated gene expression, and response of auxin-signaling mutants tir1, tir1 afb2 afb3, arf7, arf19, and arf7arf19. The observation that QS-regulated bacterial production of DKPs modulates auxin signaling and plant growth promotion establishes an important function for DKPs mediating prokaryote/eukaryote transkingdom signaling.

, an enzyme with bifunctional activity that is essential for both AMTC and leucine degradation. P. aeruginosa PAO1 products encoded by the liuABCD cluster showed a higher sequence similarity (77.2 to 79.5%) with the probable products of liu clusters from several Pseudomonas species than with the atuCDEF cluster from PAO1 (41.5%). Phylogenetic studies suggest that the atu cluster from P. aeruginosa could be the result of horizontal transfer from Alphaproteobacteria. Our results suggest that the atu and liu clusters are bifunctional operons involved in both the AMTC and leucine catabolic pathways.

Because toxic heavy metals (including chromium) have been abundant on the Earth since the beginning of life, microbes have been exposed to them for nearly four billion years [1]. In response, cells have developed diverse mechanisms that confer heavy metal resistance, such as, for example, the active extrusion of toxic metal cations [2,3]. This constitutes one of the beststudied bacterial mechanisms of resistance to chromium, which is based on the active efflux of chromate driven by the membrane potential [4,5] ChrA is a membrane protein that confers resistance to the toxic ion chromate through the energy-dependent chromate efflux from the cytoplasm. In the protein databases, ChrA is a member of the chromate ion transporter (CHR) superfamily, composed of at least several dozens of members, distributed in the three domains of life. The aim of this work was to perform a phylogenetic analysis of the CHR superfamily. An exhaustive search for ChrA homologous proteins was carried out at the National Center for Biotechnology Information database. One hundred and thirty-five sequences were identified as members of the CHR superfamily [77 long-chain sequences, or bidomains (LCHR), and 58 short-chain sequences, or monodomains (SCHR)], organized mainly as tandem pairs of genes whose resultant proteins probably possess oppositely oriented membrane topology. LCHR sequences were split into amino and carboxyl domains, and the resultant domains were aligned with the SCHR proteins. A phylogenetic tree was reconstructed using four different methods, obtaining similar results. The domains were grouped into three clusters: the SCHR proteins cluster, the amino domain cluster of LCHR proteins and the carboxyl domain cluster of LCHR proteins. These results, as well as differences in the genomic context of CHR proteins, enabled the proteins to be sorted into two families (SCHR and LCHR), and 10 subfamilies. Evidence was found suggesting an ancient origin of LCHR proteins from the fusion of two SCHR protein-encoding genes; however, some secondary events of fusion and fission may have occurred later. The separate distribution of the LCHR and SCHR proteins, differences in the genomic context in both groups and the fact that chromate transport has been demonstrated only in LCHR proteins suggest that the CHR proteins comprise two or more paralogous groups in the CHR superfamily.Abbreviations CHR, chromate ion transporter; ME, minimum evolution; MP, maximum parsimony; NJ, neighbour joining; TMS, transmembrane segment; UPGMA, unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages.

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Diverse molecules mediate cross-kingdom communication between bacteria and their eukaryotic partners and determine pathogenic or symbiotic relationships. N-acyl-L-homoserine lactone-dependent quorum-sensing signaling represses the biosynthesis of bacterial cyclodipeptides (CDPs) that act as auxin signal mimics in the host plant Arabidopsis thaliana. In this work, we performed bioinformatics, biochemical, and plant growth analyses to identify non-ribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS) proteins of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which are involved in CDP synthesis. A reverse genetics strategy allowed the identification of the genes encoding putative multi-modular-NRPS (MM-NRPS). Mutations in these genes affected the synthesis of the CDPs cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val), cyclo(L-Pro-L-Leu), and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr), while showing wild-type-like levels of virulence factors, such as violacein, elastase, and pyocyanin. When analyzing the bioactivity of purified, naturally produced CDPs, it was found that cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr) and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val) were capable of antagonizing quorum-sensing-LasR (QS-LasR)-dependent signaling in a contrasting manner in the cell-free supernatants of the selected NRPS mutants, which showed QS induction. Using a bacteria-plant interaction system, we further show that the pvdJ, ambB, and pchE P. aeruginosa mutants failed to repress primary root growth, but improved root branching in A. thaliana seedlings. These results indicated that the CDP production in P. aeruginosa depended on the functional MM-NRPS, which influences quorum-sensing of bacteria and plays a role in root architecture remodeling.