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The addition of a hydroxymethyl group to the antimicrobial drug nitrofurazone generated hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH), which had reduced toxicity when its activity against Trypanosoma cruzi was tested in a murine model of Chagas' disease. Four groups of 12 Swiss female mice each received 150 mg of body weight/kg/day of NFOH, 150 mg/kg/day of nitrofurazone (parental compound), 60 mg/kg/day of benznidazole (BZL), or the solvent as a placebo. Treatments were administered orally once a day 6 days a week until the completion of 60 doses. NFOH was as effective as BZL in keeping direct parasitemia at undetectable levels, and PCR results were negative. No histopathological lesions were seen 180 days after completion of the treatments, a time when the levels of anti-T. cruzi antibodies were very low in mice treated with either NFOH or BZL. Nitrofurazone was highly toxic, which led to an overall rate of mortality of 75% and necessitated interruption of the treatment. In contrast, the group treated with its hydroxymethyl derivative, NFOH, displayed the lowest mortality (16%), followed by the BZL (33%) and placebo (66%) groups. The findings of histopathological studies were consistent with these results, with the placebo group showing the most severe parasite infiltrates in skeletal muscle and heart tissue and the NFOH group showing the lowest. The present evidence suggests that NFOH is a promising anti-T. cruzi agent.In 1909, Carlos Chagas described the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi as the causative agent of a widespread disease in Brazil that involved cardiac alterations and megaorgans. The parasite and its insect vectors were described in the original paper on the disease (7), and the parasite was soon confirmed to be present in patients throughout Latin America. Recent reports estimate the number of infected people to be between 9.8 million and 15 million in the Americas (29), with 28 million more being at risk of infection (26). In this scenario, congenital transmission of infection is a major problem in urban areas, along with risks from blood transfusion and migration of infected patients to areas of nonendemicity (28). In spite of the reduction in the number of new infections and the increased knowledge about the parasite, treatment of Chagas' disease relies on two drugs developed during the early 1970s: benznidazole (BNZ; Radanil, Roche) and nifurtimox (NFX; Bayer) (35). Both drugs are generally well tolerated by children but cause many undesirable side effects in adults and are not effective during the chronic phase of the disease. A well-tolerated, safe, and therapeutically efficient drug is not yet available. Several attempts have been made to create new drugs with more specificity toward the parasite and less toxicity for the mammalian host. Such attempts included inhibitors of cruzain (13, 14), C-14␣-demethylase (5, 10, 32), and chemical modifications of molecules with known trypanocidal activity, such as aromatic nitroheterocyclic compounds (1, 2). Nitrofurazone is an antimicrobial drug that is eff...

BackgroundTreatment of Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, relies on nifurtimox and benznidazole (BZL), which present side effects in adult patients, and natural resistance in some parasite strains. Hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH) is a new drug candidate with demonstrated trypanocidal activity; however, its safety is not known.MethodsHepG2 cells dose response to NFOH and BZL (5–100 µM) was assessed by measurement of ROS, DNA damage and survival. Swiss mice were treated with NFOH or BZL for short-term (ST, 21 d) or long-term (LT, 60 d) periods. Sera levels of cellular injury markers, liver inflammatory and oxidative stress, and fibrotic remodeling were monitored.ResultsHepG2 cells exhibited mild stress, evidenced by increased ROS and DNA damage, in response to NFOH, while BZL at 100 µM concentration induced >33% cell death in 24 h. In mice, NFOH ST treatment resulted in mild-to-no increase in the liver injury biomarkers (GOT, GPT), and liver levels of inflammatory (myeloperoxidase, TNF-α), oxidative (lipid peroxides) and nitrosative (3-nitrotyrosine) stress. These stress responses in NFOH LT treated mice were normalized to control levels. BZL-treated mice exhibited a >5-fold increase in GOT, GPT and TNF-α (LT) and a 20–40% increase in liver levels of MPO activity (ST and LT) in comparison with NFOH-treated mice. The liver inflammatory infiltrate was noted in the order of BZL>vehicle≥NFOH and BZL>NFOH≥vehicle, respectively, after ST and LT treatments. Liver fibrotic remodeling, identified after ST treatment, was in the order of BZL>vehicle>NFOH; lipid deposits, indicative of mitochondrial dysfunction and in the order of NFOH>vehicle>BZL were evidenced after LT treatment.ConclusionsNFOH induces mild ST hepatotoxicity that is normalized during LT treatment in mice. Our results suggest that additional studies to determine the efficacy and toxicity of NFOH are warranted.

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Chagas cardiomyopathy is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi (Tc). We identified two candidate antigens (TcG2 and TcG4) that elicit antibodies and T cell responses in naturally infected diverse hosts. In this study, we cloned TcG2 and TcG4 in a nanovector and evaluated whether nano-immunotherapy (referred as nano2/4) offers resistance to chronic Chagas disease. For this, C57BL/6 mice were infected with Tc and given nano2/4 at 21 and 42 days post-infection (pi). Non-infected, infected, and infected mice treated with pcDNA3.1 expression plasmid encoding TcG2/TcG4 (referred as p2/4) were used as controls. All mice responded to Tc infection with expansion and functional activation of splenic lymphocytes. Flow cytometry showed that frequency of splenic, poly-functional CD4 + and CD8 + T cells expressing interferon-γ, perforin, and granzyme B were increased by immunotherapy (Tc.nano2/4 > Tc.p2/4) and associated with 88%-99.7% decline in cardiac and skeletal (SK) tissue levels of parasite burden (Tc.nano2/4 > Tc.p2/4) in Chagas mice. Subsequently, Tc.nano2/4 mice exhibited a significant decline in peripheral and tissues levels of oxidative stress (e.g., 4-hydroxynonenal, protein carbonyls) and inflammatory infiltrate that otherwise were pronounced in Chagas mice. Further, nano2/4 therapy was effective in controlling the tissue infiltration of pro-fibrotic macrophages and established a balanced environment controlling the expression of collagens, metalloproteinases, and other markers of cardiomyopathy and improving the expression of Myh7 (encodes β myosin heavy chain) and Gsk3b (encodes glycogen synthase kinase 3) required for maintaining cardiac contractility in Chagas heart. We conclude that nano2/4 enhances the systemic T cell immunity that improves the host's ability to control chronic parasite persistence and Chagas cardiomyopathy.

New benzofuroxans were developed and studied as antiproliferative Trypanosoma cruzi agents. Compounds displayed remarkable in vitro activities against different strains, Tulahuen 2, CL Brener and Y. Its unspecific cytotoxicity was evaluated using human macrophages being not toxic at a concentration at least 8 times, and until 250 times, that of its T. cruzi IC50. Some biochemical pathways were studied, namely parasite respiration, cysteinyl active site enzymes and reaction with glutathione, as target for the mechanism of action. Not only T. cruzi respiration but also Cruzipain or trypanothione reductase were not affected, however the most active derivatives, the vinylsulfinyl- and vinylsulfonyl-containing benzofuroxans, react with glutathione in a redox pathway. Furthermore, the compounds showed good in vivo activities when they were studied in an acute murine model of Chagas' disease. The compounds were able to reduce the parasite loads of animals with fully established T. cruzi infections.

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