The energy cost per unit of distance (Cs, kilojoules per metre) of the front-crawl, back, breast and butterfly strokes was assessed in 20 elite swimmers. At sub-maximal speeds (v), Cs was measured dividing steady-state oxygen consumption (VO2) by the speed (v, metres per second). At supra-maximal v, Cs was calculated by dividing the total metabolic energy (E, kilojoules) spent in covering 45.7, 91.4 and 182.9 m by the distance. E was obtained as: E = Ean + alphaVO2maxtp - alphaVO2maxtau(1 - e(-(tp/tau))), where Ean was the amount of energy (kilojoules) derived from anaerobic sources, VO2max litres per second was the maximal oxygen uptake, alpha( = 20.9 kJ x 1 O2(-1)) was the energy equivalent of O2, tau (24 s) was the time constant assumed for the attainment of VO2max at muscle level at the onset of exercise, and tp (seconds) was the performance time. The lactic acid component was assumed to increase exponentially with tp to an asymptotic value of 0.418 kJ x kg(-1) of body mass for tp> or =120 s. The lactic acid component of Ean was obtained from the net increase of lactate concentration after exercise (delta[La]b) assuming that, when delta[La]b = 1 mmol x 1(-1) the net amount of metabolic energy released by lactate formation was 0.069 kJ x kg(-1). Over the entire range of v, front crawl was the least costly stroke. For example at 1 m x s(-1), Cs amounted, on average, to 0.70, 0.84, 0.82 and 0.124 kJ x m(-1) in front crawl, backstroke, butterfly and breaststroke, respectively; at 1.5 m x s(-1), Cs was 1.23, 1.47, 1.55 and 1.87 kJ x m(-1) in the four strokes, respectively. The Cs was a continuous function of the speed in all of the four strokes. It increased exponentially in crawl and backstroke, whereas in butterfly Cs attained a minimum at the two lowest v to increase exponentially at higher v. The Cs in breaststroke was a linear function of the v, probably because of the considerable amount of energy spent in this stroke for accelerating the body during the pushing phase so as to compensate for the loss of v occurring in the non-propulsive phase.

Oxygen consumption (VO2) and blood lactate concentration were determined during constant-speed track running on 16 runners of intermediate level competing in middle distances (0.8-5.0 km). The energy cost of track running per unit distance (Cr) was then obtained from the ratio of steady-state VO2, corrected for lactate production, to speed; it was found to be independent of speed, its overall mean being 3.72 +/- 0.24 J.kg-1 x m-1 (n = 58; 1 ml O2 = 20.9 J). Maximal VO2 (VO2max) was also measured on the same subjects. Theoretical record times were then calculated for each distance and subject and compared with actual seasonal best performances as follows. The maximal metabolic power (Er max) a subject can maintain in running is a known function of VO2max and maximal anaerobic capacity and of the effort duration to exhaustion (te). Er max was then calculated as a function of te from VO2max, assuming a standard value for maximal anaerobic capacity. The metabolic power requirement (Er) necessary to cover a given distance (d) was calculated as a function of performance time (t) from the product Crdt-1 = Er. The time values that solve the equality Er max(te) = Er(t), assumed to yield the theoretical best t, were obtained by an iterative procedure for any given subject and distance and compared with actual records.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

We investigated the effect of 8 weeks of high intensity interval training (HIT) and isoinertial resistance training (IRT) on cardiovascular fitness, muscle mass-strength and risk factors of metabolic syndrome in 12 healthy older adults (68 yy ± 4). HIT consisted in 7 two-minute repetitions at 80%–90% of V˙O2max, 3 times/w. After 4 months of recovery, subjects were treated with IRT, which included 4 sets of 7 maximal, bilateral knee extensions/flexions 3 times/w on a leg-press flywheel ergometer. HIT elicited significant: i) modifications of selected anthropometrical features; ii) improvements of cardiovascular fitness and; iii) decrease of systolic pressure. HIT and IRT induced hypertrophy of the quadriceps muscle, which, however, was paralleled by significant increases in strength only after IRT. Neither HIT nor IRT induced relevant changes in blood lipid profile, with the exception of a decrease of LDL and CHO after IRT. Physiological parameters related with aerobic fitness and selected body composition values predicting cardiovascular risk remained stable during detraining and, after IRT, they were complemented by substantial increase of muscle strength, leading to further improvements of quality of life of the subjects.

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