This study in the wake of 1990s fire catastrophes identifies and analyzes underlying causes of vegetation fires in eight locations across Borneo and Sumatra. Multidisciplinary and multiscale analysis integrates geospatial technologies with varied social research approaches and participatory mapping. It helps fill a void of site-specific evidence on diverse underlying causes of the Indonesian fires, despite emerging consensus on macrolevel causes and impacts, and policy debates on preventing future fire disasters. Our most important findings include confirmation of multiple direct and underlying fire causes at each of the eight locations, no single dominant fire cause at any site, and wide differences in fire causes among sites. Conclusions emphasize the importance of location specific studies within a regional analytical context. Our "hybrid" research methods demonstrate the explanatory power of integrating geospatial and social analysis techniques, and the benefits of analyzing fire causes and impacts at multiple scales in varied locations across diverse regions.

This paper explores the major interactions between the transformation of swidden farming and the pursuit of rural livelihoods in the uplands of Southeast Asia. The paper draws on selected literature, workshop reflections, and six case studies to describe the causal processes and livelihood consequences of swidden change. Householdlevel livelihood responses have included both the intensification and 'dis-intensification' of swidden land-use, the insertion of cash crops, the redeployment of household labour, and the taking on of broader (often non-rural) livelihood aspirations and strategies. At the community level there have been emerging institutional arrangements for management of land and forests, and varying degrees of participation in or resistance to government schemes and programs. Swidden change has led to the loss and also the reassertion, realignment, and redefinition of cultures and identities, with important implications for access to resources. The impacts of these changes have been varied. Cash crops have often improved livelihoods but complete specialisation for the market increases vulnerability. Thus swidden can still provide an important safety net in the face of market fluctuations. Improved access to markets and social provision of education and health care have mostly improved the welfare of previously isolated groups. However, growing differences within and between communities in the course of swidden transformations can leave some groups marginalized and worse off. These processes of differentiation can be accentuated by heavy-handed state interventions based on swidden stereotypes. Nevertheless, communities have not passively accepted these pressures and have mobilized to protect their livelihood assets and strategies. Thus swidden farmers are not resisting appropriate and supportive forms of development. They are adopting new practices and engaging with markets, but in many situations swidden is still important to their livelihood strategies, providing resilience in the face of turbulent change. Active involvement of local people is essential in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating development and conservation programs in swidden lands. Positive market incentives and supportive government policies are better than standardised, top-down directives.

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Shifting cultivation is practiced by millions of farmers in the tropics and has been accused of causing deforestation and keeping farmers in poverty. The assumed positive relationship between fallow length and crop yields has long shaped such negative opinions on the sustainability and environmental impact of the system, as population growth is believed inevitably to lead to its collapse. Empirical evidence for this assumption is scarce, however, and a better understanding of system dynamics is needed before discarding shifting cultivation as unsustainable. With cases from Malaysia and Indonesia, we show that fallow length is a weak predictor of crop yields, though interactions with fertilizer inputs may increase its importance. Other factors such as drought, flooding, and pests are more important determinants of yields. The implication is that when using natural fallow as the only means of nutrient supply, there is no need to cut old fallow vegetation. Moreover, there is no evidence of system collapse, even at short fallow periods. We conclude that shifting cultivation should be accepted as a rational land use system and that earlier calls for bringing a ''Green Revolution'' to shifting cultivators are still relevant to achieve intensive and sustainable production.

Swidden cultivators are often found as a distinct category of farmers in the literature, but rarely appear in population censuses or other national and regional classifications. This has led to a worldwide confusion on how many people are dependent on this form of agriculture. The most often cited number of 200-300 million dates back to the early 1970s, but the source is obscure. We assess available, published data from nine countries in Southeast Asia and conclude that on this basis it is not possible to provide a firm estimate of the number of swidden cultivators in the region. A conservative range of 14-34 million people engaged in swidden cultivation in the region Hum Ecol (is suggested, however. We argue that along with improved knowledge of swidden livelihoods, there is an urgent need to develop techniques that will allow for better estimates of swidden populations in order to secure appropriate rural development and poverty reduction in swidden areas.

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SUMMARYHealth issues of forest women in developing countries merit more serious attention. This paper reviews existing literature on the interface of women, health and forests to highlight conservation opportunities and challenges. Most women in forests are collectors and users of forest species. However, existing conservation efforts, deforestation, poor health services and household responsibilities can intensify health and safety concerns for forest dependent women. Women are likely to bear the strenuous burden of carrying fuelwood (and other forest products) long distances and inhaling smoke while cooking. The burden of unintended childbearing, diseases and cultural issues can compound their health problems. To improve local livelihoods and environments, some organisations have initiated activities that integrate conservation and human health objectives, including family planning. This article provides project examples, where the involvement of women has been identified as a key component in effectively meeting both conservation and development goals.Keywords: women, human health, forest conservation, fuelwood, integrated projects Forêts, femmes et santé: défis et opportunités pour la conservation M. WAN, C.J.P. COLFER et B. POWELL Les questions de santé des femmes vivant dans la forêt dans les pays en voie de développement méritent une attention sérieuse. Cet article examine la littérature existante sur les questions liées des femmes, de la santé et de la forêt, pour souligner les opportunités et les défis qu'elles lancent à la conservation. La plupart des femmes vivant dans les forêts récoltent et utilisent les espèces forestières. Cependant, les efforts existants de la conservation, la déforestation, les services de santé faibles et les responsabilités de ménage peuvent intensifier les soucis quant à la sécurité et à la santé des femmes dépendantes de la forêt. Il est probable que ce soient les femmes qui doivent soutenir le fardeau écrasant du transport du bois de combustion et d'autres produits forestiers sur leur dos sur de longues distances, ainsi que l'inhalation des fumées durant la combustion et la cuisine. Le fardeau des grossesses non prévues, des maladies et des questions culturelles peut aggraver leurs problèmes de santé. Pour améliorer l'existence et l'environnement, certaines organisations ont créé des activités intégrant les objectifs de conservation et de santé, en incluant le planning familial. Cet article fournit des exemples de projets où la participation des femmes a été identifiée comme étant un élément clé pour parvenir à atteindre efficacement les buts de conservation et de développement.Bosque, mujer y salud: oportunidades y retos para la conservación M. WAN, C.J.P. COLFER y B. POWELL El tema de la salud de la mujer que trabaja en el bosque en países en vías de desarrollo merece ser considerado más seriamente. Este artículo es una revisión de la literatura existente sobre la interacción de la mujer, la salud y el bosque con la que poner de relieve oportunidades para la conservación ...