Swidden Transformations and Rural Livelihoods in Southeast Asia

Abstract

This paper explores the major interactions between the transformation of swidden farming and the pursuit of rural livelihoods in the uplands of Southeast Asia. The paper draws on selected literature, workshop reflections, and six case studies to describe the causal processes and livelihood consequences of swidden change. Householdlevel livelihood responses have included both the intensification and 'dis-intensification' of swidden land-use, the insertion of cash crops, the redeployment of household labour, and the taking on of broader (often non-rural) livelihood aspirations and strategies. At the community level there have been emerging institutional arrangements for management of land and forests, and varying degrees of participation in or resistance to government schemes and programs. Swidden change has led to the loss and also the reassertion, realignment, and redefinition of cultures and identities, with important implications for access to resources. The impacts of these changes have been varied. Cash crops have often improved livelihoods but complete specialisation for the market increases vulnerability. Thus swidden can still provide an important safety net in the face of market fluctuations. Improved access to markets and social provision of education and health care have mostly improved the welfare of previously isolated groups. However, growing differences within and between communities in the course of swidden transformations can leave some groups marginalized and worse off. These processes of differentiation can be accentuated by heavy-handed state interventions based on swidden stereotypes. Nevertheless, communities have not passively accepted these pressures and have mobilized to protect their livelihood assets and strategies. Thus swidden farmers are not resisting appropriate and supportive forms of development. They are adopting new practices and engaging with markets, but in many situations swidden is still important to their livelihood strategies, providing resilience in the face of turbulent change. Active involvement of local people is essential in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating development and conservation programs in swidden lands. Positive market incentives and supportive government policies are better than standardised, top-down directives.

A Review of Swidden Agriculture in Southeast Asia

“…Negative perceptions from governments towards swiddening in general in SEA have accelerated the demise of this traditional swidden system. As for the debate on swidden agriculture, a prevailing dichotomy concerns; on the one hand, the persistence of this farming practice due to biodiversity preservation [63,64], livelihoods dependence [65] and cultural identity [66]; on the other hand, the demise of swiddening due to large scale plantations [10], economic development [67] and continuing urbanization [62]. Information on the debate on whether swidden agriculture will change not only reflects the cognitive differences against it from different disciplines, but also implies that swidden agriculture is highly controversial and worthy of extensive research.…”

“…These people usually dwell in relatively inaccessible mountainous and hilly parts, and partially or fully, directly or indirectly, have to turn to swidden cultivation for subsistence [91]. Cramb et al highlighted that swidden farming plays a key role in ensuring the livelihood safety of local cultivators against market fluctuations in SEA [65]. An empirical research [92] carried out in Vietnam's uplands accentuated that traditional composite swidden agriculture was perceived as an environment-friendly and sustainable farming system to improve household grain production.…”

“…The underlying causes can be summarized into two aspects. One is the continuing reliance on swidden farming of the poor in many frontier regions [65]. Ordinarily, swidden cultivation is mainly practiced by the ethnic minority groups settled in inaccessible uplands [139].…”

“…For example, market factors like commodity prices fluctuations will allow a shift between swidden cultivation and cash cropping [90]. Thus, swidden practice can be an effective strategy to cope with market fluctuation [65,90]. However, the REDD+ action program will pose a profound effect on the development of swidden system, such as government's curtailment.…”

“…To better understand how different factors affect swidden cultivation, spatially explicit assessment should be one of directions for future research [97]. More details of the different factors affecting swidden agriculture will not only shed light on the debate over the persistence or demise of swidden [98], but also help in better understanding the livelihood impacts on swiddeners [65,90] and environmental effects on forest ecosystems and biodiversity as well [64,66].…”