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Micronutrient deficiencies (MNDs) occur as a result of insufficient intake of minerals and vitamins that are critical for body growth, physical/mental development, and activity. These deficiencies are particularly prevalent in lower-and middle-income countries (LMICs), falling disproportionately on the poorest and most vulnerable segments of the society. Dietary diversity is considered the most effective method in reducing this deficiency but is often a major constraint as most foods rich in micronutrients are also expensive and thereby inaccessible to poorer members of society. In recent years, affordable commodities such as staple foods (e.g., cereals, roots, and tubers) and condiments (e.g., salt and oil) have been targeted as “vehicles” for fortification and biofortification. Despite efforts by many countries to support such initiatives, there have been mixed experiences with delivery and coverage. An important but little understood driver of success and failure for food fortification has been the range of business models and approaches adopted to promote uptake. This review examines the different models used in the delivery of fortified food including complementary foods and biofortified crops. Using a keyword search and pearl growing techniques, the review located 11,897 texts of which 106 were considered relevant. Evidence was found of a range of business forms and models that attempt to optimise uptake, use, and impact of food fortification which are specific to the ‘food vehicle’ and environment. We characterise the current business models and business parameters that drive successful food fortification and we propose an initial structure for understanding different fortification business cases that will offer assistance to future designers and implementors of food fortification programmes.

Highlights  CA can be profitable without the use of external inputs.  Labour and weeding time is reduced under CA without the use of herbicides.  NPV analysis shows CA can have short-term and longer term benefits dependent on crop mix and opportunity cost of labour assumed.  CA cropping options for the poorest farmers are preferred under risk neutral and extremely risk-averse scenarios.  Probability of CA breaking even under the same crop mix is higher than under conventional for the poorest farmers.

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Recent research and development efforts within East and Southern Africa, as a case in point, have clearly shown that constraints to adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) can be overcome but stress the need for local innovation systems that involve farmers exchanging among themselves and use of participatory methods that help to adapt CA principles to local conditions. This chapter explores one such innovation system using a district in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique, as a case study. The aims of the chapter are twofold: firstly, to describe the process of construction of the innovation system, and by way of actors' perceptions of the system, to better understand key components central to its formation and functioning; and secondly, to explore farmers' perceptions of CA (including motivation to comply with certain actors in the innovation system) and the effectiveness of the current innovation system in reaching its target beneficiary - the very poor.

This paper reports on early soil related outcomes from conservation agriculture (CA) benchmark sites located within the marginal rainfed environment of agro-ecological zone 4 (annual rainfall: 200-250 mm) in pre-conflict central Syria. The outcomes reported are specifically those that relate to beneficial soil quality and water retention attributes relative to conventional tillage-based soil management practices applied to the fodder barley-livestock system, the dominant system in the zone. On-farm operational research was established to examine the impact of a barley (Hordeum vulgare) and vetch (Vicia sativa) rotation intercropped with atriplex (Atriplex halimus) and salsola (Salsola collina), under CA and conventional tillage agriculture, on the soil quality parameters and crop productivity. Preliminary results showed that CA had a positive effect on the soil quality parameters and crop performance. The soil moisture and hydraulic conductivity were higher under CA (p < 0.05), combined with improved productivity (grain and above-ground biomass) under specific crop mixes. The results suggest that despite the marginal nature of the zone, the use of CA is a viable option for the future of farmers' livelihoods within similar localities and agro-climates, given the benefits for soil moisture and grain and straw productivity. In addition, it is likely to positively impact those in marginal environments where both pastoralism and agro-pastoralism production systems co-exist and compete for crop biomass as a main source of livestock feed. The increase in grain and straw yields vis-à-vis improvements in biophysical parameters in the CA system relative to tillage agriculture does suggest, however, that the competition with livestock for biomass is likely to reduce over time, and farmers would be able to return increased levels of straw (as stubble and residue) as mulch, given improved biomass yields.

Highlights• Key cognitive drivers behind the use of AIS are ease of application, enhancing food security/benefits for farmers including improving their ability to innovate.• Participants that are younger in age, female and affiliated with a specific organisation/network are more likely to use AIS.• Social pressure from key social referents such as colleagues, employers and supervisors can positively influence the use of AIS.• Potential barriers to using AIS are perceptions of a lack of knowledge/skills, adequate finance and incentives.

Background: Initiatives to tackle micronutrient deficiencies (MNDs) in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) have increased steadily in recent years. Commodities such as staple foods (e.g., cereals) and condiments (e.g., salt) have been targeted as ‘vehicles’ for industrial fortification through numerous projects and initiatives. However, mixed experiences with delivery, coverage and sustainability have been found. Methods: Using an online survey of 71 key stakeholders (from 35 countries) consisting of the public/private sector, academia and civil society, this study sought to unpack the ‘business model’ for fortification initiatives to identify the key drivers of success and constraints faced by stakeholders in LMICs. Bivariate analysis was conducted to identify factors associated with the coverage of the target market and the perceived success and sustainability of fortification initiatives. Results: We identified four key factors contributing to the success of fortification initiatives. The first involves the size of the firm. Large firms had a significantly higher (p < 0.05) self-sustaining index (perceived level of sustainability of the fortification initiative) than smaller sized firms. In addition, a higher perceived success score (p < 0.05) was associated with non-targeted initiatives compared to those specifically targeted at a certain cohort of the population, further illustrating the benefits of producing at scale. Secondly, a significant relationship was found between whether standards were enacted and the coverage of the target market by the project/firm (p < 0.05).). The third key factor relates to the ability to source adequate testing for the fortified produce in-house. A positive correlation was found for post-mix in-factory testing and the self-sustaining index (p < 0.05). Finally, delays to importation and high charges were cited as key constraints to the use of premix. Conclusions: We argue therefore that a successful ‘business model’ for industrial fortification initiatives invariably consist of: (i) the involvement of larger sized firms that have the advantage of benefiting from economies of scale; (ii) the availability and application of agreed standards by the producer; (iii) high quality assurance/compliance monitoring (including post-mix testing where relevant), and; (iv) the ability to procure premix in a timely/cost-effective manner. These criteria are likely to be important factors that contribute to the success of fortification initiatives in LMICs.