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IntroductionForests are ecological environments which protect the natural balance of the world we live in, providing shelter, nest, hunting, feeding, and breeding (as well as making significant contributions in meeting various needs of people), continuously evolving with unique life chains (Tan, 1992;Köse, 2007). A total of 27.6% of Turkey is covered with forests and there are more than 50 tree species adapted to these areas. A total of 35% of them are wide-leaved trees, 54% are coniferous pine species, and 11% are beech, fir, juniper, cedar, spruce, alder, chestnut, hornbeam, linden, ash, and eucalyptus species. Among these forest trees, red pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) (Pinaceae) spreads throughout the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Marmara regions of Turkey and hosts wild life. Its highquality wood is used economically for firewood, timber, etc., and it has become the most essential plant in the forestry industry (Öktem, 1987;Anonymous, 2003). Red pine covers approximately 47% of the forests in the Mediterranean region, 40% of the forests in the Aegean region, and 10% of the forests in the Marmara region. However, it is known that this species is also found in some areas of the western Black Sea region (Neyişçi, 1987).There are many factors that threaten the life of red pine, which provides shelter to wildlife with its natural beauties and fills the diverse needs of people (Neyişçi, 1987;Ertuğrul, 2002;Kanat and Alma, 2004). Among these factors, the most significant are illegal and uncontrolled cutting, agricultural land clearance, forest fires, unplanned and improper zoning permits, road construction, migrations, and wars. In addition to these causes of damage, there are insects, which are referred to as smoke-free fire. One of the most important is the pine processionary moth, Taumetopoea pityocampa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) (Özdal, 2002). The adults of T. pityocampa do not cause harm. However, the larvae feed on coniferous pine species such as Pinus halepensis Mill., P. silvestris, P. pinea, P. nigra with Cedrus libani A. Rich.

The present research was undertaken to study the antifungal activities of Origanum onites L. and Ziziphora clinopodioides L. essential oils against three different isolates (M1-5, M2-1 and M3-5) of Botrytis cinerea (in vitro tests) and to investigate the vapor contact impacts on fungus and strawberry fruit quality (in vivo tests). Antifungal activities of these oils were tested by following the poisoned food technique at four different concentrations (0.25, 0.50, 1.00 and 2.00 mL/L) against B. cinerea. In vitro studies suggested that the 0.50 mL/L and 1.00 mL/L doses of O. onites and 1.00 mL/L and 2.00 mL/L doses of Z. clinopodioides provide high mycelial growth inhibition, 85.29–94.12% and 39.12–94.12%, respectively, by direct addition to food. Thus, these doses were tested in in vivo conditions, as a vapor contact treatment against two isolates (M1-5 and M3-5) of B. cinerea inoculated on strawberry cv. Camarosa fruits. Results showed that both O. onites and Z. clinopodioides essential oils have a moderate to high impact on the prevention of gray mold. The oils were also found to have a slight to moderate impact on weight loss and the loss of soluble solids concentration. Overall, the results demonstrated that the tested oils are a potential biodegradable alternative to fungicides.

Abstract:In this study, chemical compositions of the volatile oil extracted from Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. were analyzed by using GC and GC-MS. The oxygenated sesquiterpenes, monoterpene hydrocarbons, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated monoterpenes compositions were detected in the sample studied. Pesticidal effects of this oil were investigated on storage insect pests like Rhizopertha dominica F. . The essential oil was tested on some fungal pathogens and weeds. As fungal pathogens, Verticillium dahliae Kleb, Fusarium oxyporum Schl., Phytium debaryanum Auct. non R. Hesse, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Barry and Rhizoctania solani Kühn. were used while tests on the weeds were performed on Convolvulus arvensis L., Melilotus officinalis L. and Amaranthus retroflexus L. in invitro conditions. E. camaldulensis essential oil was found to be effective at 10 and 20 µL against all the tested insect pests. Our results also showed that growth of fungal mycelial as well as weed stems and roots were significantly affected by essential oil. In 10 and 20 µL, V. dahliae, P. debaryanum, F. oxyporum and S. sclerotiorum mycelial growth were inhibited in 7 days, while no effect was observed on R. solani mycelial growth in this duration. On the other hand, the applications of the oil to the weeds showed different results for each species examined. Although at 5, 10 and 20 µL concentrations of E. camaldulensis essential oil did not affect the root and stem growth of C. arvensis, the stem and root growth of M. officinalis and A. retroflexus were reduced by the tested essential oil at the same concentration and time. The research results suggest that E. camaldulensis essential oil might have potential to be used as a natural pesticide as well as fungicide.

Olea europea L. emerged as a good source of traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments of various countries of the world, in particular Mediterranean countries. In this study, oleuropein (1), oleanolic acid (2), maslinic acid (3), a mixture of erythrodiol and uvaol (4 and 5) isolated from the leaves of olive were added at two concentrations (1g/100g feed and 4g/100 g feed) into fish feed. Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) were fed twice a day with the feed during 96 hours. The levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) enzymes and glucose levels in the serums of fishes fed with pure compounds were found to be higher as compared with the control group. Pure metabolites affect the liver metabolism of Nile tilapia. These results suggested that the compounds tested affect the liver metabolism of Nile tilapia. Compounds 1, 2, 3 and 4+5 (2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 mg/Petri dish concentrations) were also tested for contact toxic effects against three important stored pests, Sitophilus granarius (weevil), Tribolium confusum (confused flour beetle) and Acanthoscelides obtectus (bean weevil). The toxic effects of the metabolites were lower than those of the insecticide, dichlorvos (DDVP). DDVP caused complete mortality of the insects after 48 hours of treatments, the metabolites caused the mortality rates T. confusum and A. obtectus, respectively. Maslinic acid (3) has the most toxic compound with the lowest LC 50 values (0.66 mg/Petri, 0.61 mg/Petri and 1.71 mg/Petri for S. granarius, T. confusum and A. obtectus, respectively). These results show that maslinic acid (3) as well as other substances can be used as natural insecticides against these pests.