Objective: To study differences in dietary intake between adults with different socioeconomic status (SES) and trends over time. Design: Cross-sectional study based on data of three Dutch National Food Consumption Surveys (DNFCS-1 1987=88; DNFCS-2 1992; DNFCS-3 1997=98), obtained from a panel by a stratified probability sample of the non-institutionalized Dutch population. Subjects: A total of 6008 men and 6957 women aged 19 y and over. Methods: Dietary intake was assessed with a 2 day dietary record. Background information was obtained by structured questionnaire. Sociodemographic variables were available from panel information. SES, based on educational level, occupation and occupational position was categorized into (very) low, middle and high. Analysis of variance with age as covariable was used to explore the effects of SES on dietary intake and anthropometry. Statistical tests for trend were carried out with models in which week-weekend-day effects and an interaction term of time with SES were also included. Results: The prevalence of obesity and skipping of breakfast was higher among people with a low SES. In all three surveys, subjects in the (very) low SES group reported having a higher consumption of potatoes, meat and meat products, visible fats, coffee and soft drinks (men only). Subjects with a high SES reported consuming more vegetables, cheese and alcohol. As regards nutrients, in all surveys a higher SES was associated with higher intake of vegetable protein, dietary fibre and most micronutrients. A higher SES was also associated with a lower fat intake but the differences between social classes were rather small and not consistent when the contribution of alcohol to energy intake was taken into account. Conclusion: In general, dietary intake among subjects in higher SES groups tended to be closer to the recommendations of the Netherlands Food and Nutrition Council and this phenomenon was quite stable over a period of 10 y. Sponsorship: The present study was supported by the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports.

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Objective: To validate an FFQ designed to estimate energy intake in children against doubly labelled water (DLW). To investigate how quality control and standard beverage portion sizes affect the validity of the FFQ. Design: Thirty healthy children, aged 4-6 years, participated. Total energy expenditure (EE) was measured by the DLW method during an observation period of 15 d. At the end of this period parents filled out an FFQ designed to assess the child's habitual energy intake (EI) of the preceding four weeks. Setting: Validation study in The Netherlands. Subjects: Thirty healthy children (fifteen boys and fifteen girls), aged 4-6 years. Results: Mean EI (6117 (SD 1025) kJ/d) did not differ significantly from mean EE (6286 (SD 971) kJ/d; P 5 0?15); the mean EI:EE ratio was 0?98. The Pearson correlation coefficient between EI and EE was 0?62. The Bland-Altman plot showed no systematic bias and a constant bias close to zero. Less intensive quality control of the FFQ maintained the mean EI:EE ratio and decreased the correlation slightly. Using standard instead of individually measured beverage portion sizes decreased the mean EI:EE ratio, but maintained the correlation. Conclusions: It can be concluded that the developed FFQ is a valid instrument to estimate mean energy intake in a group of 4-to 6-year-old children and performs reasonably well to rank the subjects with respect to energy intake. It is therefore a useful instrument to estimate energy intake in children in surveys and epidemiological studies in The Netherlands. Keywords Child Energy expenditure Energy intake QuestionnairesFor the assessment of energy intake in large epidemiological studies a valid instrument for use in children is critical. Until children have reached the developmental stage when they are aware of their food intake and can begin to conceptualize time (at approximately 7-8 years of age), reporting of food intake depends on the parents. Due to its cost-effectiveness and the possibility for selfadministration by the parent, the FFQ may be a useful instrument for use in large-scale studies. As a suitable FFQ for the assessment of energy intake in Dutch children was not available, we developed an FFQ (2) based on intake data of children included in the third Dutch National Food Consumption Survey (DNFCS) (3) . The doubly labelled water (DLW) method is considered to be the 'gold standard' for the determination of total energy expenditure in free-living subjects (4) and has been used as a reference method in a large number of studies to validate energy intake both in adults (e.g. references 5-8) and children (e.g. references 1, 9-12). The number of validation studies of FFQ using the DLW method in children is limited (1,13) . The first aim of the present study was to validate the FFQ with respect to energy intake, using the DLW method as a reference method, in 4-to 6-year-old children. In large-scale studies extensive quality control of FFQ is time-consuming and expensive. Therefore an additional aim of the study was to investigat...

Precautionary allergen labelling (PAL) was introduced by the food industry to help manage and communicate the possibility of reaction from the unintended presence of allergens in foods. However, in its current form, PAL is counterproductive for consumers with food allergies. This review aims to summarize the perspectives of all the key stakeholders (including clinicians, patients, food industry and regulators), with the aim of defining common health protection and risk minimization goals. The lack of agreed reference doses has resulted in inconsistent application of PAL by the food industry and in levels of contamination that prompt withdrawal action by enforcement officers. So there is a poor relationship between the presence or absence of PAL and actual reaction risk. This has led to a loss of trust in PAL, reducing the ability of consumers with food allergies to make informed choices. The result has been reduced avoidance, reduced quality of life and increased risk-taking by consumers who often ignore PAL. All contributing stakeholders agree that PAL must reflect actual risk. PAL should be transparent and consistent with rules underpinning decision-making process being communicated clearly to all stakeholders. The use of PAL should indicate the