CRM1 (also known as XPO1 and exportin 1) mediates nuclear export of hundreds of proteins through the recognition of the leucine-rich nuclear export signal (LR-NES). Here we present the 2.9Å structure of CRM1 bound to snurportin 1 (SNUPN). Snurportin 1 binds CRM1 in a bipartite manner by means of an amino-terminal LR-NES and its nucleotide-binding domain. The LR-NES is a combined α-helical-extended structure that occupies a hydrophobic groove between two CRM1 outer helices. The LR-NES interface explains the consensus hydrophobic pattern, preference for intervening electronegative residues and inhibition by leptomycin B. The second nuclear export signal epitope is a basic surface on the snurportin 1 nucleotide-binding domain, which binds an acidic patch on CRM1 adjacent to the LR-NES site. Multipartite recognition of individually weak nuclear export signal epitopes may be common to CRM1 substrates, enhancing CRM1 binding beyond the generally low affinity LR-NES. Similar energetic construction is also used in multipartite nuclear localization signals to provide broad substrate specificity and rapid evolution in nuclear transport.

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Although androgen excess is considered detrimental to women's health and fertility, global and ovarian granulosa cell-specific androgen-receptor (AR) knockout mouse models have been used to show that androgen actions through ARs are actually necessary for normal ovarian function and female fertility. Here we describe two AR-mediated pathways in granulosa cells that regulate ovarian follicular development and therefore female fertility. First, we show that androgens attenuate follicular atresia through nuclear and extranuclear signaling pathways by enhancing expression of the microRNA (miR) miR-125b, which in turn suppresses proapoptotic protein expression. Second, we demonstrate that, independent of transcription, androgens enhance follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) receptor expression, which then augments FSHmediated follicle growth and development. Interestingly, we find that the scaffold molecule paxillin regulates both processes, making it a critical regulator of AR actions in the ovary. Finally, we report that low doses of exogenous androgens enhance gonadotropin-induced ovulation in mice, further demonstrating the critical role that androgens play in follicular development and fertility. These data may explain reported positive effects of androgens on ovulation rates in women with diminished ovarian reserve. Furthermore, this study demonstrates mechanisms that might contribute to the unregulated follicle growth seen in diseases of excess androgens such as polycystic ovary syndrome. O ther than the obligatory role of androgens as estrogen precursors in steroidogenesis (1), little is known about the direct involvement of androgens in the female ovary. For many decades, excess androgens in women have been considered detrimental to women's health, as diseases such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) are associated with reduced fertility. In the past, these negative effects of androgens on female fertility were thought to occur primarily at the level of the hypothalamus and pituitary (2, 3), although important data across different species (4-7) suggested that androgens could also directly promote follicle growth (8, 9). Attitudes about androgen actions in female fertility changed with the development of global androgenreceptor knockout (ARKO) mice (10-12). The female ARKO mice had considerable reproductive defects, with decreased fertility, defective follicular development, reduced ovulation, and premature ovarian failure. In other words, the phenotype of these ARKO mice suggested that androgen signaling might actually be important for normal female reproductive health. Intriguingly, through the generation of granulosa cell (GC)-specific ARKO mice, we (13) and then others (14) demonstrated that essentially all the observed reproductive phenotypes in the complete AR-null mice are caused by androgen actions in GCs. These results highlighted that, with regard to fertility, androgen signaling in the ovary is at least as important as androgen signaling in the pituitary or hypothalamus. By using this GC-specific ARK...

Fetuin-A, a hepatic secretory protein, has recently been implicated in insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes. It is an endogenous inhibitor of insulin receptor tyrosine kinase. However, regulation of fetuin-A synthesis in relation to insulin resistance is unclear. In the present paper, we report that both non-esterified ('free') fatty acids and fetuin-A coexist at high levels in the serum of db/db mice, indicating an association between them. For an in-depth study, we incubated palmitate with HepG2 cells and rat primary hepatocytes, and found enhanced fetuin-A secretion to more than 4-fold over the control. Interestingly, cell lysates from these incubations showed overexpression and activity of NF-kappaB (nuclear factor kappaB). In NF-kappaB-knockout HepG2 cells, palmitate failed to increase fetuin-A secretion, whereas forced expression of NF-kappaB released fetuin-A massively in the absence of palmitate. Moreover, palmitate stimulated NF-kappaB binding to the fetuin-A promoter resulting in increased reporter activity. These results suggest NF-kappaB to be the mediator of the palmitate effect. Palmitate-induced robust expression of fetuin-A indicates the occurrence of additional targets, and we found that fetuin-A severely impaired adipocyte function leading to insulin resistance. Our results reveal a new dimension of lipid-induced insulin resistance and open another contemporary target for therapeutic intervention in Type 2 diabetes.

CRM1 (or exportin 1, Xpo1) transports proteins out of the cell nucleus through the nuclear pore complex. In the cytoplasm, GTP hydrolysis and consequent dissociation of Ran from CRM1 releases low-affinity substrates, while additional factors facilitate release of high-affinity substrates. Here we provide a model for human CRM1 export complex assembly and disassembly through structural and biochemical analyses of CRM1 bound to the substrate snurportin 1 (SNUPN, also called snuportin 1).

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