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Hepatitis B virus (HBV), nowadays, is one of the major human pathogens worldwide. Approximately, 400 million people worldwide have chronic HBV infection. Only 5% of persons infected during adulthood develop chronic infection. The reverse is true for those infected at birth or in early childhood, i.e. more than 90% of these persons progress to chronic infection. Currently, eight different genotypes o f HBV have been identified, differing in nucleotide sequence by greater than 8%. In addition, numerous subgenotypes have a l s o been recognized based on the nucleotide sequence variability of 4- 8%. It has invariably been found that these genotypes and mutations play a pivotal role in the liver disease aggravation and virus replication. The precore mutations (G1896A) and the double mutation (T1762/A1764) in the basal core promoter are important mutations that alter expression of the hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg). The HBeAg is important for establishing viral persistence. The precore G1896A mutation abrogates the expression of HBeAg. Numerous other mutations alter the disease severity and progression. It is predictive that the infected patient has high risk of hepatocellular carcinoma if the genotype C is incriminated or if HBV possesses basal core promoter double mutation. Association of the remaining genotypes have been noted but with less degree than genotype C. Phenotypic assays of the different HBV protein markers with different molecular techniques illustrate the replication efficiency of the virus in cell lines. This review will discuss various mutations into their association with liver disease severity and progression as well as virus replication.

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Many medicinal plants have been utilized for centuries despite the lack of scientific evidence of their therapeutic effects. This study evaluated the phytochemical and dual biological profiling, namely, antibacterial and cytotoxic properties, of three plant species, namely, Tribulus terrestris L., Typha domingensis Pers., and Ricinus communis L., in order to explore potential relationships (if any) with their ethnopharmacological uses. GC-MS was used to achieve phytochemical screening of two plant extracts (T. terrestris and T. domingensis). The primary chemicals detected in varying amounts in both extracts were siloxane derivatives, fatty acid esters, diisooctyl phthalate, phytosterol, and aromatic acid esters. According to the findings, the major component detected in both extracts was 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid and diisooctyl ester (antibacterial and antifungal). T. domingensis contained a low level of benzoic acid, methyl ester (antibacterial). Both extracts included stigmasterol and sitosterol, as well as six different forms of fatty acid esters. Antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, thyroid inhibitor, and anti-inflammatory properties have all been described. Human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF7), human ovary adenocarcinoma (A2780), and human colon adenocarcinoma (HT29), as well as normal human fetal lung fibroblasts (MRC5), all showed cytotoxic activity. The most potent activity against A2780 cells was seen in T. terrestris and T. domingensis extracts (IC50: 3.69 and 5.87 g/mL, respectively). R. communis was more active against MCF7 cells (1.52 μg/mL) followed by A2780 and HT29 cells, respectively. R. communis showed a dose-dependent clonogenic effect against MCF7 cells. The antibacterial activity of all three plant extracts was tested against three standard Gram-positive, four standard Gram-negative, and two clinical bacterial strains. Among the three extracts examined, T. terrestris was the most effective, followed by R. communis, and finally, T. domingensis plant extract was effective against various isolated bacteria. This study, interestingly, sheds light on the bioactive components found in plant extracts that can be utilized for cytotoxic and antibacterial purposes.