In this paper we clarify the mechanisms through which rural electrification can contribute to rural development. Through a detailed case study analysis of a community-based electric microgrid in rural Kenya, we demonstrate that access to electricity enables the use of electric equipment and tools by small and micro enterprises, resulting in significant improvement in productivity per worker (100-200% depending on the task at hand) and in a corresponding growth in income levels in the order of 20-70%, depending on the product made.Access to electricity simultaneously enables and improves the delivery of social and business services from a wide range of village-level infrastructure (e.g., schools, markets, and water pumps) while improving the productivity of agricultural activities. We find that increased productivity and growth in revenues within the context of better delivery of social and business support services contribute to achieving higher social and economic benefits for rural communities. We also demonstrate that when local electricity users have an ability to charge and enforce cost-reflective tariffs and when electricity consumption is closely linked to productive uses that generate incomes, cost recovery is feasible.

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Current methods to remove algae from a liquid medium are energy intensive and expensive. This study characterized algae contained within a wastewater oxidation pond and sought to identify a more efficient harvesting technique. Analysis of oxidation pond wastewater revealed that algae, consisting primarily of Chlorella and Scenedesmus, composed approximately 80% of the solids inventory during the study period. Results demonstrated that suspended air flotation (SAF) could harvest algae with a lower air:solids (A/S) ratio, lower energy requirements, and higher loading rates compared to dissolved air flotation (DAF) (P , 0.001). Identification of a more efficient algal harvesting system may benefit wastewater treatment plants by enabling cost effective means to reduce solids content of the final effluent. Furthermore, use of SAF to harvest commercially grown Chlorella and Scenedesmus may reduce manufacturing costs of algal-based products such as fuel, fertilizer, and fish food. Water Environ. Res., 81, 702 (2009).

Changing lighting technologies to achieve increased efficiency and energy service levels can provide ancillary health benefits. The cheapest, crudest kerosene lamps emit the largest amounts of PM(2.5). Improving affordability and access to better lighting options (hurricane or pressure lamps and lighting using grid or off-grid electricity) can deliver health benefits for a large fraction of the world's population, while reducing the economic and environmental burden of the current fuel-based lighting technologies.

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Mass absorption coefficient spectra were measured between λ = 500 nm and 840 nm for nine forms of highly-absorbing carbonaceous aerosol: five samples generated from gas-, liquid-and solid-fueled flames; spark-discharge fullerene soot; graphene and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) crumpled nanosheets; and fullerene (C 60 ) assemblies. Aerosol absorption spectra were measured for size-and mass-selected particles and found to be dependent on fuel type and formative conditions. Flame-generated particles had morphologies consistent with freshly emitted black carbon (BC) with mass absorption coefficients (MAC) ranging between 3.8 m 2 g -1 and 8.6 m 2 g -1 at λ = 550 nm. Absorption Ångström exponents (AAE) -i.e. MAC spectral dependence -ranged between 1.0 and 1.3 for flame-generated particles and up to 7.5 for C 60 . The dependence of MAC and AAE on mobility diameter and particle morphology was also investigated. Lastly, the current data were compared to all previously published MAC measurements of highly-absorbing carbonaceous aerosol. Mass absorption coefficient spectra were measured between λ = 500 nm and 840 nm for nine 13 forms of highly-absorbing carbonaceous aerosol: five samples generated from gas-, liquid-and 14 solid-fueled flames; spark-discharge fullerene soot; graphene and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) 15 crumpled nanosheets; and fullerene (C 60 ) assemblies. Aerosol absorption spectra were measured 16 for size-and mass-selected particles and found to be dependent on fuel type and formative 17 conditions. Flame-generated particles had morphologies consistent with freshly emitted black 18 carbon (BC) with mass absorption coefficients (MAC) ranging between 3.8 m 2 g -1 and 8.6 m 2 g -1 19at λ = 550 nm. Absorption Ångström exponents (AAE) -i.e. MAC spectral dependence -ranged 20 between 1.0 and 1.3 for flame-generated particles and up to 7.5 for C 60 . The dependence of MAC 21 and AAE on mobility diameter and particle morphology was also investigated. Lastly, the current 22 M A N U S C R I P T A C C E P T E D ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2 data were compared to all previously published MAC measurements of highly-absorbing 23 carbonaceous aerosol. 24